Research

Methodology
 Course Objective
 Understanding Research
 Problems in research
 Steps in Research process
 Research Hypothesis
 Research Design
“I keep six honest serving men, (they
taught me all I knew), their names are
what, and why, and when, and how,
and where and who.”

--Rudyard Kipling

3
What is Research?
 What is research?
Research means finding answers to the
questions.
It is a systematic search for truth.
Through research, new and original
information, ideas about the world we live in,
are obtained.
Research is search for knowledge.
Research is defined as a scientific and
systematic search for information on a specific
topic.
Curiosity
Quality of
Life
Utility of
Applications
Advancement of
Amount of Technology
knowledge

Application
Development
Applied Research
Basic Research

6
Which of these can be classified as research?
[1] Samad prepared a paper on “computer usage in secondary
schools” after reviewing literature on the subject available in
his university library.

[2] Manoj says that he has researched and completed a

document which gives information about the age of his
students, their results, their parents income and distance of
their schools from the District Office.

[3] Kim participated in a workshop on curriculum development

and prepared what he calls, a report on the curriculum for
Engineers.
None of the above examples can
be classified under the name
research.
Consider the following case which is an
example of research:
•A general manager of a car producing company was concerned
with the complaints received from the car users that the car
they produce have some problems with sound at the dash
board and the rear passenger seat after few thousand
kilometres of driving.
•He obtained information from the company workers to identify
the various factors influencing the problem.
•He then formulated the problem and generated guesses
(hypotheses).
•He constructed a checklist and obtained requisite information
from a representative sample of cars.
•He analyzed the collected data, interpreted the results in the
light of his hypotheses and reached conclusions.
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
• Research is systematic, because it follows certain
steps that are logical in order. These steps are:
1. Understanding the nature of problem to be studied and
identifying the related area of knowledge.
2. Reviewing literature to understand how others have
approached or dealt with the problem.
3. Collecting data in an organized and controlled manner
so as to arrive at valid decisions.
4. Analyzing data appropriate to the problem.
5. Drawing conclusions and making generalizations.
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
• Redman and Mory “Systematized effort to
gain new knowledge”
• Organized scientific investigations to
solve problems, test hypotheses, develop
or invent new products.
• What’s out there?
• What does it look like?
• How does it work?
• How well does a method solve a problem?
• Why does something happen the way it
happens?
• Predictive (Models): What would happen if ---
------------ ?

2008 © ChengXiang Zhai 12

Dragon Star Lecture at Beijing
 Research Idea
1. Job recruitment via the
internet
2. Advertising and share
prices
3. The future of trade unions
Research Question
1. How effective is recruiting
for new staff via the
internet in comparison
with the traditional
methods.
2.How does the running of a
TV advertising campaign
designed to boost the
image of a company
affect.
3. What are the strategies
that trade unions should
adopt to ensure their
CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH
Purpose clearly defined.
Research process detailed.
Research design thoroughly planned.
High ethical standards applied.
Limitations frankly revealed.
Adequate analysis for decision maker’s
needs.
Findings presented clearly.
 PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH
 Uncontrollable variables
 Human tendencies
 Time and money
 Lack of conceptualization
 Insufficient interaction between university
research departments and business
establishments
 Lack of confidence on the part of business
units to give information
Role of research in management
 The Value of Business Research for Managers
Business Research Methods can be employed in
each of the following four stages:
1. Identification of problems and/or
opportunities
2. Diagnosing and Assessment of problems
and/or opportunities
3. Selection and Implementation of Courses
of Action
4. Evaluating the Course of Action
 Fields Where Research is Often Used
• General Business Conditions
• Corporate Research
• Financial and Accounting Research
• Management and Organizational
• Behaviour Research
• Sales and Marketing Research
• Corporate Responsibility Research
 RESEARCH PROCESS
FF
Review the literature
FF

Review
Concepts
Design
And
Research Collect Interpret
Define theories Formulate Analyse
(Including Data and
Research hypothesis Data
Sample report
Problem
Review Design)
F F
Previous
I Research III IV V
findings VI VII

II
F

F Feed Back
FF Feed Forward
1. Title
2. Introduction
3. Statement of the Problem
4. Review of Literature
5. Objectives of the Study
6. Hypotheses for the Study
7. Research Design and Methodology
8. Conceptual Framework
9. Report Writing and Implications of the Study
10. Financial Assistance Required
11. Conclusion
12. Select Bibliography
• It should be precise. (Words)

• It should be clear. (Conceptual)

• It should be specific. (Scope)

• It should be catchy. (Attractive)

--------------Examples
• It is expected to introduce chosen research
problem / topic covering its origin,
meaning, purpose, developments at
international / national / regional level and
its present status.
• The very idea of this component in the
research proposal is to acquaint readers
with the research problem.
• Proposed research topic should have a genuine
need for investigation.
• Do the following need an investigation ?
High turn over of employees of a reputed five star
hotel affecting its revenue.
An increasing trend of farmers’ suicides in a
particular region.
Decelerating sales trend of a well known and
popular automobile company affecting its sales
revenue.
Yes
 RESEARCH PROBLEM

 The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue

to be examined.
 Research Problem refers to some difficulty
/need which a researcher experiences in the
context of either theoretical or practical situation
and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
 HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A
RESEARCH PROBLEM?
 Customer complaints
 Conversation with company employees
 Observation of inappropriate behavior or conditions
in the firm
 Deviation from the business plan
 Success of the firm’s competitor’s
 Relevant reading of published material (trends,
regulations)
 Company records and reports.
 SOURCES OF PROBLEMS

• Reading
• Academic Experience
• Daily Experience
• Exposure to Field Situations
• Consultations
• Brainstorming
• Research
• Intuition
 CRITERIA OF SELECTION

Internal / Personal criteria – Researcher’s

Interest, Researcher’s Competence,
Researcher’s own Resource: finance and time.
External Criteria or Factors – Researchability of
the problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty
of the Problem, Feasibility, Facilities,
Usefulness and Social Relevance, Research
Personnel.
 IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

 Identification / Selection of the Problem

 Formulation of the Problem
 There are two ways of stating a problem:
 Posting question / questions
 Making declarative statement / statements
 Steps in defining a Problem
1. Statement of the problem in a general way
2. Understanding the nature of the problem
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing ideas through discussions
5. Rephrasing the research problem
 4. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

• It is an extensive survey of all available past studies

relevant to the field of investigation.

• It gives us knowledge about what others have found

out in the related field of study and how they have
done so.
 PURPOSE OF REVIEW
 To gain a background knowledge of the research
topic.
 To identify the concepts relating to it, potential
relationships between them and to formulate
researchable hypothesis.
 To identify appropriate methodology, research design,
methods of measuring concepts and techniques of
analysis.
 To identify data sources used by other researchers.
 To learn how others structured their reports.
 Points to be kept in mind while
reviewing literature..
 Read relevant literature.
 Refer original works.
 Read with comprehension.
 Read in time.
 Index the literature.
 Defining Problem results in
Clear Cut Research Objectives..
Symptom Detection

Analysis of
the Situation

Problem Definition

Statement of
Research Objectives
 5. ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
 Research Objectives are the specific components of
the research problem, that you’ll be working to
answer or complete, in order to answer the overall
research problem. - Churchill, 2001

 The objectives refers to the questions to be

answered through the study. They indicate what we
are trying to get from the study or the expected
results / outcome of the study.
ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

 Research Objectives should be clear and achievable.

 The objectives may be specified in the form of
either statements or questions.
 Generally, they are written as statements, using the
word “to”. (For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to
determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. )
Research Question
1. Why have org’s introduced
team briefing?
2. How can the effectiveness
of team briefing methods
be measured?
3. Has team briefing been
effective?
Research Objective
1. To identify org’s objectives
for team briefing schemes
2. To establish suitable
effectiveness criteria for
team briefing methods
3.To describe the effectiveness
of team briefing
 6. HYPOTHESIS

 Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that

relates an independent variable to a dependant
variable.
Hypothesis must contain at least one independent
variable and one dependant variable.
 A detailed blueprint specifying how the
research will be carried out

 Description / location of the study area.

 Selection of company / enterprise.
 Data source.
 Selection of quantitative parameters.
 Selection of qualitative parameters.
 Selection of respondents.
 Data collection instrument.
 Respondents contact method.
 Data analytical tool.
 Scope of the study.
 Duration of the study.
Research Methodology Vs Research
Methods
Research Methodology Vs Research
Methods (Continued)
• A clear meaning to different terms and
concepts that are relating to the research
problem. (Meaning)
• A clearly defined terms and concepts will
hardly leave any room for confusions and
doubts in terms of understanding the research
problem. (Clear ideas)
• It is expected to highlight possible research
findings and their usefulness in the interest of the
community.
• For instance “A study on students’ difficulty and
drop outs in school education” will certainly bring
forward actual causes responsible for the same
and will serve as base for appropriate policy
formulation to address the problems’ of students.
• Costs need to be estimated as accurately as
possible.
• Proposal involving economic costs will be
appreciated.
• It is necessary to estimate cost of the
research project and include the same in the
proposal.
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
 Objectives
• Define hypothesis
• Types of Hypothesis
• Procedure for testing Hypothesis
 Meaning
• In ordinary context:
– Hypothesis means mere assumptions or
supposition which are to be proved or disproved.
• In research context:
– Hypothesis is a formal question that is intended to
resolve.
 Definition
• Hypothesis may be defined as a proposition of
a set of proposition set forth as an explanation
for the occurrence of some specified group
phenomenon either asserted merely as a
provisional conjecture to guide some
investigation or accepted as highly probable in
the light of established facts.
 Definition by Various Authors
• “A hypothesis is a conjectural statement of the relation
between two or more variables”. (Kerlinger, 1956)

• “Hypotheses are single tentative guesses, good

hunches – assumed for use in devising theory or
planning experiments intended to be given a direct
experimental test when possible”. (Eric Rogers, 1966)

• “Hypothesis is a formal statement that presents the

expected relationship between an independent and
dependent variable.”(Creswell, 1994)
 Characteristics
• Related to problem
• State relationship
• Clear and precise
• Testable
• Amenable with time
• Specific and simple
 Purpose
• Guides/gives direction to the study/investigation
• Defines Facts that are relevant and not relevant
• Suggests which form of research design is likely to be
the most appropriate
• Provides a framework for organizing the conclusions of
the findings
• Limits the research to specific area
• Offers explanations for the relationships between
those variables that can be empirically tested
 Hypothesis making
Generation by simple enumeration

Method of conformity

Analogy

Associated differentiation
 Types of hypothesis

Null Alternate
hypothesis hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis
• Null hypothesis always predicts that there is
no relationship between the variables being
studied.
• The researcher Null
wishes to disapprove this
Hypothesis
hypothesis.
• It is denoted by H0
• For example:
– “There is no relationship between smoking and
lung cancer.”
 Alternate Hypothesis
• The alternate hypothesis always predicts that
there will be a relationship between the
variables being studied.
• It is denoted by Ha
 Types of Hypothesis
• Simple Hypothesis
– All parameters of the distribution are specified
– Example: The sales of company would increase
next year if during past year it was normally
distributed with a variance of 10%
• Composite Hypothesis
– Parameters of distribution are not specified.
– Example: The sales of a company will increase
next year.
• Type I Error
– When a research rejects H0 (null Hypothesis)
which is actually true.
– This can occur by chance due to the random
sample that is selected
– Changing sample or diversifying it can solve it.
• Type II Error
– When a research accepts H0 (null Hypothesis)
which is actually not true.
– One way to solve this problem is to run a test for a
longer period of time to increase its sample size.
 Procedure for hypothesis testing

Making a Formal Selecting a Deciding the

Statement significance level distribution to use

Selecting a random
Calculation of Comparing the
sample & compute
probability probability
appropriate value
Flow diagram of hypothesis testing
 Acceptance and Rejection Regions
• All possible values which a test-statistic may
assume can be divided into two mutually
exclusive groups: one group consisting of
values which appear to be consistent with the
null hypothesis and the other having values
which are unlikely to occur if Ho is true. The
first group is called the acceptance region and
the second set of values is known as the
rejection region for a test. The rejection
region is also called the critical region.
Research Design

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• Objective
Understanding Research design
Various types of research design

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 Research Design

• Research Design is the conceptual structure

within which research is conducted.
• It constitutes the framework for collection,
measurement & analysis of data.

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• The designing decisions happen to be in respect of:
– (i) What is the study about?
– (ii) Why is the study being made?
– (iii) Where will the study be carried out?
– (iv) What type of data is required?
– (v) Where can the required data be found?
– (vi) What periods of time will the study include?
– (vii) What will be the sample design?
– (viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
– (ix) How will the data be analyzed?
– (x) In what style will the report be prepared?
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• Split the overall research design into the following parts:
– (a) sampling design
• the method of selecting items to be observed;
– (b) observational design
• the conditions under which the observations are to be
made;
– (c) statistical design
• the question of how many items are to be observed and
how the information and data gathered are to be
analysed;
– (d) operational design
• the techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can be
carried out.
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• The important features of a research design
– (i) a plan
• specifies the sources & types of information relevant to
the research problem
– (ii) a strategy
• which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data.
– (iii) the time and cost budgets
• most studies are done under these two constraints

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• Research design must, at least, contain—
– (a) a clear statement of the research
problem;
– (b) procedures and techniques to be used
for gathering information;
– (c) the population to be studied;
– (d) methods to be used in processing and
analyzing data
– (e) way of presenting the study.
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• The various concepts relating to designs
• 1. Dependent and independent variables
– A concept which can take on different quantitative
values (a variable)
– Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also
quantified
– If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of
the other variable --- a dependent variable,
– the variable that is antecedent to the dependent
variable --- an independent variable.
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• 2. Extraneous variable:
– Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of
the study, but may affect the dependent variable
• the researcher wants to test the hypothesis: a relationship
between children’s gains in social studies achievement and
their self-concepts
– self-concept is an independent variable, social studies
achievement is a dependent variable.
– Intelligence may as well affect the social studies
achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose
of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be
termed as an extraneous variable.
– Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result
of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an
‘experimental error’. 73/42
• 3. Control
– One important characteristic of a good
research design is to minimize the influence
or effect of extraneous variable(s).
• 4. Confounded relationship
– When the dependent variable is not free
from the influence of extraneous
variable(s)the relationship between the
dependent and independent variables is
said to be confounded/confused by an
extraneous variable(s).
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• 5. Research hypothesis
–When a prediction or a hypothesized
relationship is to be tested by scientific
methods, it is termed as research
hypothesis.
–The research hypothesis is a predictive
statement that relates an independent
variable to a dependent variable.

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• 6. Experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research:
– When the purpose of research is to test a research
hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing
research.
– It can be of the experimental design or of the
non-experimental design.
• For instance, a researcher wants to study whether
intelligence affects reading ability for a group of
students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50
students and tests their intelligence and reading ability
by calculating the coefficient of correlation between
the two sets of scores.
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• 7. Experimental and control groups
– An experimental hypothesis-testing research when a
group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a
‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to
some novel or special condition, it is termed an
‘experimental group’.
• 8. Treatments
– The two treatments are the usual studies programme
and the special studies programme
• For example, if we want to determine through an
experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of
fertilizers on the yield of wheat, in that case the three
varieties of fertilizers will be treated as three treatments.
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• 9. Experiment
– Examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to
some research problem, is known as an experiment.
• For example, an experiment to examine the
usefulness of a certain newly developed drug
– Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute
experiment and comparative experiment.
• If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on
the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment;
• but if we want to determine the impact of one
fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other
fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as a
comparative experiment. 78/42
• 10. Experimental unit(s)
–The pre-determined plots or the
blocks, where different treatments
are used, are known as
experimental units.
–Such experimental units must be
selected (defined) very carefully.

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• DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS
• 1. Exploratory research studies
– also termed as formulative research studies
– The main purpose
• formulating a problem for more precise investigation
• of developing the working hypotheses from an
operational point of view
• The major emphasis is on the discovery of ideas and
insights

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• Generally, three methods in the context of
research design for such studies
– (a) the survey of concerning literature;
– (b) the experience survey; and
– (c) the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.

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• The survey of concerning literature
– to be the most simple and fruitful method of
formulating precisely the research problem
or developing hypothesis.
• Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may
be reviewed and their usefulness be
evaluated as a basis for further research.
• It may also be considered whether the
already stated hypotheses suggest new
hypothesis.
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• Experience survey
– To obtain insight into the relationships between
variables and new ideas relating to the research
problem
• 2. Descriptive and diagnostic research studies
– Descriptive research studies (Ex-post facto
research)
• describing the characteristics of a particular individual,
or of a group
• Fact finding enquiry or cause finding studies
• Variables are not in researcher’s control.
– Diagnostic research studies
• determine the frequency with which something occurs
• or its association with something else
84/42
• 3. hypothesis-testing research studies
– known as experimental studies or design of
experiments
• tests the hypotheses of causal
relationships between variables
– Usually experiments meet this requirement
– Three basic principles of experimental
designs
• (1) the Principle of Replication;
• (2) the Principle of Randomization;
• (3) Principle of Local Control.
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• The Principle of Replication
– the experiment should be repeated more
than once
– The statistical accuracy of the experiments is
increased
• For example, if an experiment requiring a
two-way analysis of variance is replicated,
it will then require a three-way analysis of
variance since replication itself may be a
source of variation in the data

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• The Principle of Randomization
– Design or plan the experiment that the variations caused by
extraneous factors
• For instance, if we grow one variety of rice, say, in the first
half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in
the other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility
may be different in the first half in comparison to the other
half. If this is so, our results would not be realistic.
• In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be
grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some
random sampling technique i.e., we may apply
randomization principle and protect ourselves against the
effects of the extraneous factors.
– The principle of randomization, have a better estimate of the
experimental error.
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• The Principle of Local Control
– Plan the experiment for performing a two-way
analysis of variance
– In other words,
• first divide the field into several homogeneous parts,
known as blocks,
• then each such block is divided into parts equal to the
number of treatments.
• Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these
parts of a block.
• the principle of local control can eliminate the
variability due to extraneous factor(s) from
the experimental error
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• Important experiment designs
– (a) Informal experimental designs
• (i) Before-and-after without control design.
• (ii) After-only with control design.
• (iii) Before-and-after with control design.
– (b) Formal experimental designs
• (i) Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
• (ii) Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
• (iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).
• (iv) Factorial designs.

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• 1. Before-and-after without control design
– A single test group or area is selected, and the
dependent variable is measured
– The treatment is then introduced and then the
dependent variable is measured again
– The effect of the treatment
• the level of the phenomenon after the treatment - the
level of the phenomenon before the treatment

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• The design can be represented thus:

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• 2. After-only with control design
– Two groups or areas (test area and control area) are
selected and the treatment is introduced into the test area
only

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• 3. Before-and-after with control design

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 Types of research
Basic Research (fundamental research)
• Mainly concerned with generalizations and
theory formulation.
• Defining some natural phenomenon (pure
mathematics, general human behavior, etc)
Applied Research
• Concerned with solving actual business/social
problem.
• Social, economic, demographic, political
trends are common example.
• Quantitative Research
– Measurements in quantitative terms
– Calculation based research
• Qualitative Research
– Measurements in quantitative terms
– Behavioral research
• Conceptual Research vs. Empirical Research
• Descriptive vs. Analytical
– Ex post facto research
 Learning Outcome
• Understand concept of research design
• Understanding types of research design
References
• Kothari C. R., Research Methodology.
• Deepak Chawla, Neena Sodhi, Research
Methodology Concepts and Cases.
• Banerjee, Subhojit and Roy, Ramendu
(2010), Research Methodology
• Fundamentals of Research Methodology,
Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.