The Eukaryotes:

Fungi, Algae,
Protozoa, and
Helminths

Presentation
Based on
Tortora et al,
Microbiology
( lectures of Christine L. Case)

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lectures prepared by Christine L. Case
 FUNGI
Of the more than 100,000
species of fungi, only about
200 are pathogenic to humans
and animals.
All fungi are chemoheterotrophs,
requiring organic compounds for
energy and carbon.
Fungi are aerobic or facultatively
anaerobic; only a few anaerobic
fungi are known.

Mycology: the study of fungi

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fungi Classification
Domain Eukaria

Kingdom Fungi

Nutritional Type Chemoheterotroph

Multicellularity All, except yeasts

Cellular Arrangement Unicellular, filamentous

Food Acquisition Method Absorptive

Reproduction Sexual and asexual spores

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Fungi vs Bacteria

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Fungi versus bacteria
Environmental requirements and nutritional characteristics

• Fungi usually grow better in an environment with a ≤ pH 5,

which is too acidic for the growth of most common bacteria
• Almost all molds are aerobic. Most yeasts are facultative
anaerobes.
• Most fungi are more resistant to osmotic pressure than
bacteria; most can therefore grow in relatively high sugar or
salt concentrations.
• Fungi can grow on substances with a very low moisture
content, generally too low to support the growth of bacteria.
• Fungi require somewhat less nitrogen for growth than
bacteria.
• Fungi are often capable of metabolizing complex
carbohydrates, such as lignin (a component of wood), that
most bacteria cannot use for nutrients.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Characterization and
identification
of Fungi

- Yeast identification, like bacterial

identification, involves biochemical
tests.

- Multicellular fungi ( e.g. Molds) C.albicans

are identified on the basis of

physical appearance, including
colony characteristics and
reproductive spores.

Aspergillus

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Yeasts and Molds
Vegetative Growth
 Molds and Fleshy Fungi
 The fungal thallus (body) consists of hyphae; a mass of hyphae
is a mycelium
 Septate hyphae - hyphae contain cross-walls called septa
which divide them into distinct, uninucleate cell-like units.
 Coenocytic hyphae - hyphae contain no septa - long,
continuous cells with many nuclei

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Vegetative Growth
 The portion of a hypha that
obtains nutrients is called the
vegetative hypha;
 the portion concerned with
reproduction is the reproductive
or aerial hypha
- it projects above the surface of
Example of
the medium on which the fungus Mycelium on petri
is growing. dish
 Aerial hyphae often bear
reproductive spores
 Under favorable conditions the hyphae
form a filamentous mass – mycelium

►Mycelia have a huge surface area

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Vegetative Growth (Yeasts)
Unicellular fungi
Fission yeasts ( e.g.Schizosaccaromyces )divide
symmetrically
Budding yeasts divide asymmetrically
One yeast cell can in time produce up to 24 daughter cells
by budding.
Pseudohypha Some yeasts (.e.g. Candida albicans)
can produce buds that form a short chain of cells called
pseudohypha.

Dimorphism (two forms of growth)

Such fungi can grow either as a mold or as a yeast. The
moldlike forms produce vegetative and aerial hyphae; the
yeastlike forms reproduce by budding. Pathogenic
dimorphic fungi are yeast-like at 37C and mold-like at 25C
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 YEASTS
Yeast cultures resemble bacteria when grown on
laboratory media.
Yeasts are 5-10 times larger than bacteria
Yeast cells may be ellipsoidal, spherical, or
cylindrical
Yeasts are capable of facultative anaerobic
growth.
Yeasts can use oxygen as the final electron
acceptor
- If given access to oxygen, yeasts perform
aerobic respiration to metabolize carbohydrates
to carbon dioxide and water;
- denied oxygen, they ferment carbohydrates and
produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. This
fermentation is used in the brewing, wine-making,
and baking industries.
Saccharomyces species produce ethanol in
brewed beverages and carbon dioxide for
leavening bread dough.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Life Cycle (Reproduction)
• Filamentous fungi can reproduce asexually by fragmentation
of their hyphae.
• Both sexual and asexual reproduction in fungi occurs by the
formation of spores. Fungal spores can be either asexual or
sexual
- Unlike the bacterial endospore, this is a true reproductive
spore: a second organism grows from the spore.

- Asexual spores are formed by the hyphae one organism. When

these spores germinate, they become organisms that are
genetically identical to the parent.
- Sexual spores result from the fusion of nuclei from two
opposite mating strains of the same species of fungus.

• Fungi are usually identified by spore type.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Representative asexual spores

Asexual spores
Conidia
- Conidiospore, or
conidium , a unicellular or
multicellular spore that is
not enclosed in a sac.
- Conidia are produced in
a chain at the end of a
conidiophore.

Such spores are

produced by Aspergillus
Conidiophore

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Representative asexual spores.
Arthrospores
Arthrospores
Conidia formed by the
fragmentation of a
septate hypha into
single, slightly
thickened cells are
called arthroconidia
(Oidia).
The septate hypha dry out
and breaks up into individual
cells that act like spores
(athlete’s foot) less resistant
spores
Oidia cannot survive
in unfavorable
conditions.
Coccidioides immitis produces such spores
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Representative asexual spores
Blastoconidia (Blastospore)
Pseudohypha
consists of buds coming off the
parent cell.
Such spores are found in some yeasts,
such as Candida albicalls and
Cryptococcus
Chamydoconidium Blastoconidia

(chlamydospore)
a thick-walled spore formed by rounding
and enlargement within a hyphal segment.
It is the life-stage which survives in
unfavorable conditions, such as dry or
hot seasons

Chlamydoconidia are produced by the

yeast C. albicalls.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Representative asexual Sporangiospores
spores

• Sporangiospore --
asexual spore formed
within a sporangium (sac)
, at the end of an aerial
hyphae called a
sporangiophore.
The sporangium can
contain hundreds of
sporanglospores

Such spores are

Sporangiophore
produced by
Rhizopus.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Sexual Reproduction
Three phases:
 Plasmogamy - the cytoplasm of two parent cells (usually from
the mycelia) fuses together without the fusion of nuclei,
effectively bringing two haploid nuclei (of a donor cell (+) and a
recipient cell (−)) close together in the same cell.
 Karyogamy: The (+) and (−) nuclei fuse to form a diploid
(zygote) nucleus.
 Meiosis: diploid nucleus produces haploid nuclei.
(sexual spores) (a process of chromosome duplication,
recombination, and division, to produce four new haploid
cells)
Sexual Spores
 Zygospore: fusion of haploid cells produces one zygospore
 Ascospore: formed in a sac (ascus)
 Basidiospore: formed externally on a pedestal (basidium)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Medically Important Phyla of Fungi
 Zygomycota  Ascomycota
 Anamorphs
 Microsporidia  Basidiomycota
Teleomorphs- Fungi that produce both sexual and asexual
spores.
Anamorphs - asexual fungi. Produce asexual spores only.
Historically, fungi whose sexual cycle had not been observed
were put in a “holding category” called Deuteromycota.
Now, mycologists are using rRNA sequencing to classify these
organisms. Most of these previously unclassified
deuteromycetes are anamorph phases of Ascomycota, and a
few are basidiomycetes.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fungal Diseases (Mycoses)
 Subcutaneous mycoses: beneath the skin
 Cutaneous mycoses: affect hair, skin, and nails
 Superficial mycoses: localized, e.g., hair shafts
 Opportunistic mycoses: caused by normal microbiota or
environmental fungi
 Systemic mycoses:
deep within body
lungs, genital area and nervous
system.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Zygomycota
 Saprophytic molds that
have coenocytic hyphae
 Produce sporangiospores
and zygospores
 Rhizopus, Mucor
(opportunistic, systemic
mycoses)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Microsporidia
 No hyphae
 No mitochondria
 Intracellular parasites
Microsporidiosis-
Encephalitozoon intestinalis is
transmitted in contaminated
water. It causes Gastro-
Intestinal tract infection
which subsequently leads to
diarrhea and circulates to the
ocular, genitourinary and
respiratory tracts
 The life cycle of Rhizopus, a zygomycete.

Sporangiospore 10 Spores are released

from sporangium.

2 Sporangium 3 Spore germinates

11 Spore germinates
bursts to release to produce hyphae.
to produce hyphae. 9 Zygote produces
spores.
Asexual a sporangium.

reproduction
1 Aerial hypha
4 Vegetative mycelium grows.
produces a Sexual
sporangium. Sporangium 8 Karyogamy
Sporangiophore reproduction and meiosis.

Sporangiospores
5 Gametes form 7 Zygospore
at tip of hypha. forms.
Zygosporangium
containing zygospore
6
Plasmogamy.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The life cycle of Encephalitozoon, a microsporidian.

1 Spores are ingested

or inhaled.
2 Spore injects tube
6 New spores into host cell.
Mature are released.
spores Vacuole
Host cell

Asexual
reproduction

3 Cytoplasm
and
nucleus
enter.

5 Cytoplasm
breaks up around
nuclei to form 4 Cytoplasm grows, and
spores. nuclei reproduce.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Ascomycota
 Sac fungi
 Septate hyphae
 Teleomorphic fungi
Produce sexual and asexual spores
Ascospores and frequently conidiospores
Aspergillus (opportunistic, systemic mycosis)
Blastomyces dermatitidis,
Histoplasma capsulatum (systemic mycoses)
Microsporum, Trichophyton (cutaneous mycoses)

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

FThe life cycle of Talaromyces, an ascomycete.

2 Conidia are
released from 3 Conidium germinates 9 Ascospore germinates 8 Ascus opens to
conidiophore. to produce hyphae. to produce hyphae. release ascospores.

Sexual
Asexual reproduction
reproduction 7 Meiosis
4 Vegetative mycelium grows.
then mitosis.

1 Hypha produces
conidiophore.

– + 6 Karyogamy.
Conidia

5 Plasmogamy.

Ascospore
Conidiophore

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anamorphs

 Produce asexual spores only

 rRNA sequencing places most in Ascomycota;
a few are Basidiomycota
 Penicillium
 Sporothrix (subcutaneous mycosis)
 Stachybotrys, Coccidioides, Pneumocystis (systemic
mycoses)
 Candida albicans (cutaneous mycoses)

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Basidiomycota

 Club fungi
 Septate
 Produce basidiospores and sometimes
conidiospores
Cryptococcus neoformans (systemic
mycosis)
A basidiospore is a
reproductive spore produce
d by Basidiomycete fungi.
Basidiospores are externally
produced by specialized
fungal cells called basidia.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Economic Effects of Fungi
Fungi can have beneficial or detrimental effects on humans
 Saprophytic fungi - decomposing dead plant and animal tissues
 Mushrooms, and truffles are widely consumed by humans
 Fungi produce many products used in the medical field (production of
antibiotics and hormones such as penicillin, cephalosporin antibiotics,
cortisone, sterols)
 Fungi are used in genetic engineering – vaccine for hepatitis B was
developed using the yeast plasmid as the vector.
 Fermentative fungi are used in industry in production of bakery
products, cheeses, ethanol, beer and wine
 Saccharomyces cerevisiae: bread, wine,
HBV vaccine
 Trichoderma: cellulase
 Taxomyces: taxol (anticancer chemotherapy)
 Entomophaga: biocontrol
 Coniothyrium minitans: kills fungi ( antifungal)
 Paecilomyces: kills termites
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lichens
 Mutualistic combination of an
alga (or cyanobacterium) and
fungus
 Lichens are placed in the
Kingdom Fungi
 Alga produces and secretes
carbohydrates; fungus provides
holdfast( a root-like structure)
 They can inhabit areas in which
neither fungi nor algae could
survive alone
 If the partners are separated, the
lichen no longer exists
 are some of the slowest-growing
organisms on Earth
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lichens
 The lichen’s thallus, or body, forms when fungal hyphae
grow around algal cells to become the medulla

 Fungal hyphae
project below the
lichen body to form
rhizines, or
holdfasts.

 Cortex - protective
covering, over the
algal layer.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Economic Effects of Lichens
 Dyes
- orange, yellow, green, blue and purple
dyes for textiles
 Antimicrobials (Usnea)
- usnic acid in Usnea is effective against
gram positive bacteria
- Used in cosmetic production for its
antimicrobial and antifungal properties
USNEA - commonly called
as a preservative tree's dandruff
- It can sometimes be used as a
bioindicator, because it tends to only
grow in those regions where the air is
clean, and of high quality.
 Litmus ( oldest forms of pH indicator)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Algae
Kingdom Protista
Photoautotroph (some
Nutritional Type
Chemoheterotroph)
Multicellular, Some
Multicellularity
Unicellular
Food Acquisition Method Diffusion

Characteristic Features Pigments

simple eukaryotic photoautotrophs that

lack the tissues (roots, stem, and leaves)
of plants.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Algae and their habitats.
Most algae are found in the
Green algae,
ocean. Their locations Sublittoral Littoral cyanobacteria,
zone
zone euglenoids
depend on 1.the availability of Unicellular green algae,

appropriate nutrients, SURFACE diatoms, dinoflagellates LAND

2. Wavelengths of light, and Red 𝛌 Multicellular

green algae
3. surfaces on which to grow.
Orange 𝛌 Brown algae
Algae are an important part of any
aquatic food chain. They fix Yellow 𝛌
carbon dioxide into organic
molecules that can be consumed
by chemoheterotrophs..
Molecular oxygen is a by-product
of their photosynthesis. The top Violet 𝛌

few meters of any body of water

contain planktonic algae. As 75%
of the Earth is covered with water, it Red algae
Blue 𝛌
is estimated that 80% of the Earth’s
O2 is produced by planktonic
algae.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Algal habitats
 Algae and their habitats.
Pneumatocyst Blade Stipe

Brown alga (Macrocystis) Red alga (Microcladia)

The body of a multicellular alga is called a thallus that consists

holdfast, stemlike stipes, and leaflike blades

The stipe is not lignified or woody, it does not offer the support of a
plant’s stem; some algae have gas-filled blades called a
pneumatocyst.

reproduce asexually (mitosis) and sexually

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Phaeophyta
 Brown algae (kelp)
 Cellulose and alginic
acid cell walls
 Multicellular
 Chlorophyll a and c
(green pigments) ,
xanthophylls (yellow or
brown carotenoid
pigmen)
 Store carbohydrates
 Harvested for algin
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Rhodophyta
 Red algae
 Cellulose cell walls
 Most are multicellular
 Chlorophyll a and d,
phycobiliproteins
(accessory pigments
in photosynthesis)
 Store glucose polymer
 Harvested for agar
 Chlorophyta
 Green algae
 Cellulose cell walls
 Unicellular or multicellular
 Chlorophyll a and b
 Store glucose polymer
 Gave rise to plants
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bacillariophyta
 Diatoms
 Pectin and silica cell walls
 Unicellular
 Chlorophyll a and c,
carotene, xanthophylls
 Store oil
 Produse toxic Domoic acid
responsible for intoxication
 Fossilized diatoms formed oil
Dinoflagellata
 Cellulose in plasma membrane
 Unicellular
 Chlorophyll a and c, carotene,
xanthins
 Store starch
 Some are symbionts in marine animals
 produce neurotoxins that cause
paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP).
The toxin is concentrated when large
numbers of dinoflagellates are eaten
by mollusks, such as mussels.
Humans who eat these mollusks
develop PSP.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Oomycota
Antheridial hypha

 Cellulose cell walls

 Multicellular
 Chemoheterotrophic
 Produce zoospores (formerly
attributed to Fungi)
 Decomposers and plant parasites Vegetative hyphae grow on
organic matter
 Phytophthora infestans responsible for
Irish potato blight
 P. cinnamoni infects Eucalyptus
 P. ramorum causes “sudden oak death”
 Water molds
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protozoa
Kingdom Protista
Nutritional Type Chemoheterotroph
Multicellularity None
Cellular Arrangement Unicellular
Food Acquisition Method Absorptive; ingestive
Characteristic Features Motility; some form cysts

 Protozoa are a diverse group

of unicellular eukaryotic organisms, many of which are motile.
 Protozoa inhabit water and soil.
 Protozoa commonly range from 10 to 52µm, but can grow as large as
1 mm, and are seen easily by microscope.
 Approximately 20 000 species of protozoa are known. Most are free
leaving, but some are parasites (can cause human diseases).

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Characteristics of Protozoa
The term protozoan means “first animal” which generally describes
its animal-like nutrition. The feeding and growing stage is called
Trophozoite - the motile vegetative stage.
Under unfavorable conditions some protozoa produce a
protective capsule called Cyst- provided with a highly condensed
cytoplasm and resistant cell wall
Cyst is inactive, non-motile, reproductive structure, in
which new cells are produced asexually. It is infective
stage of cell sycle
cyst - infectious form of many protozoan parasites (Entamoeba
histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Balantidium coli)

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Characteristics of Protozoans
 The absence of cell wall; some have pellicle a flexible, thin
layer supporting the cell membrane in various protozoa,
protecting them and allowing them to retain their shape,
especially during locomotion
 The ability to move by locomotors organelles or by
gliding mechanisms;
 Heterotrophic nutrition; Free-living protozoa feeds upon
bacteria, yeasts, and algae, while the parasitic forms
derive nutrients from the body fluids of their hosts
 Primarily asexual means of reproduction, although sexual
modes occur in some groups.

Protozoa can reproduce asexually by binary

fission, Schizogony (multiple fission),
budding and sexually by conjugation
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Reproduction in Protozoa Conjugation
Schizogony (multiple fission)

Multiple fission is seen in - the sarcodines and

sporozoans
The end products of schizogony grow into -
trophozoites

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Medically Important Phyla of Protozoa

 Diplomonads
 Parabasalids
 Euglenozoa
 Amebae
 Apicomplexa
 Dinoflagellates
 Ciliates

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Diplomonads
- No mitochondria - Multiple flagella - Cysts
 Giardia lamblia
Giardia cyst.
Giardia trophozoites.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
1. Ingestion of the Mature
quadrinucleated cysts
from contaminated food or
water
2. Cyst wall disintegrates
and the nuclei divide and
one cyst produces 8
metabolically active
cells –Trophozoites
3. Trophozoites move to the
colon and establish
infection. Trophozoithes
multiply by binary fission
4. Infectiv resistant cysts are
released through feces
 Trichomonas vaginalis.
Parabasalids
 No mitochondria
 Multiple flagella
 Undulating membarane
 No cyst
 Trichomonas vaginalis (d) Trichomonas vaginalis. This
flagellate causes urinary and genital
tract infections.
This flagellate does not have a cyst stage.

T. vaginalis does not have a cyst stage and must be

transferred from host to host quickly before desiccation
occurs. T. vaginalis is found in the vagina and in the male
urinary tract. It is usually transmitted by sexual intercourse but
can also be transmitted by toilet facilities or towels.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Euglenozoa
• Hemoflagellates • Euglenoids
-Photoautotrophs
(blood parasites) - Move by flagella
 Trypanosoma spp.
Sleeping sickness (T. brucei is transmitted by
the tsetse fly)
 Chagas’ disease ( T. cruzi)

 transmitted by the bites of blood-

feeding insects
 have long, slender bodies and an
undulating membrane
 In the insect, the trypanosome
multiplies by schizogony
 If the insect then defecates while biting
a human, it can release trypanosomes
that can contaminate the bite wound.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Kissing Bug
 Amebae Pseudopods

 Move by pseudopods
 Free- living growing in water, including
tap water
Acanthamoeba, can infect the
cornea and cause blindness
 Balamuthia has been reported as
the cause of brain abscesses called
granulomatous amebic
encephalitis
Entamoeba histolytica causes
amebic dysentery. In the human
intestine, E. histolytica uses proteins
called lectins to attach to the
galactose of the plasma membrane
and causes cell lysis.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Apicomplexa
 Do not have locomotors
(flagella,cilia or pseudopod)
 All members of this group are
parasites
 The most significant member  Plasmodium
belong to the genus Plasmodium  Babesia
(causative agent of disease
malaria. Parasites of animals and
 Cryptosporidium
humans)  Cyclospora
The life cycle requires two hosts: Human being and The
female Anopheles mosquito
The female Anopheles mosquito is the definitive host (
parasites multiply sexually ) and The human being is the
intermediate host (parasites divide by binary fission or
Schizogony).
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 12.20 The life cycle of Plasmodium vivax, the apicomplexan that causes malaria.
1 Infected mosquito bites
human; sporozoites
migrate through
bloodstream to
Sporozoites in liver of human.
salivary gland
9 Resulting sporozoites
migrate to salivary Sporozoites undergo
2
glands of mosquito. schizogony in liver cell;
merozoites are produced.

Zygote
Sexual
reproduction 3 Merozoites released
into bloodstream
Female from liver may infect
8 In mosquito’s gametocyte new red blood cells.
digestive tract, Asexual
Male
gametocytes
gametocyte
reproduction
unite to form
zygote. Male
4 Merozoite develops
Gametocytes into ring stage in
red blood cell.

Intermediate
host
5 Ring stage grows and
7 Another mosquito bites
Female divides, producing
infected human and
merozoites.
ingests gametocytes.
6
Merozoites are released when
red blood cell ruptures; some
merozoites infect new red blood
cells, and some develop into male
and female gametocytes.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 12, unnumbered figure B, page 357.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 23.24 The life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii, the cause of toxoplasmosis.

5 Cat ingests 1 Immature oocyst is shed in cat feces.

bradyzoites in tissue Immature
cysts of animals, cyst
usually mice.
Definitive host
Sporogony
4 Sporozoites from Bradyzoites
ingested oocysts Tachyzoites
in tissue cyst Sporocysts
invade animal tissue Mature oocyst
and develop into (10–13 μm x 9–11 μm)
bradyzoites within
tissue cysts or into Sporozoite
tissue-invading 2 Mature oocysts
tachyzoites. develop by
Intermediate sporogony and
hosts contain two
If humans eat undercooked meat sporocysts, each
containing tissue cysts, they may with four infective
become infected. sporozoites.

3 Oocysts can
infect many hosts,
If a pregnant woman including mice,
accidentally ingests oocysts domestic animals,
(contacted when changing a and humans, via
cat litter box), prenatal ingestion.
infection of the fetus may
occur.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Ciliates Pellicle
Cytostome
Food vacuoles

 Move by cilia Cilia

 Complex cells
 Balantidium coli -
Anal pore
the only human Contractile vacuole Macronucleus Micronucleus
parasite Paramecium

the causative agent

of a severe, though
rare, type of
dysentery.
Stalk
Cytostome
Cilia

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Slime molds classified with amebae
Spore caps
Spore
1 Ameba
reproduces.

Nucleus Ameba
9 2 Amebae
germinates
from spore. move toward
cAMP signal
Stalk given off by
(1 mm) one ameba.
cAMP
cAMP
8 Spore is
released.
Asexual cAMP

7 Cells in spore reproduction

cap form
spores.
Amebae
3 aggregate.

6 Fruiting body
with spore
4 Sheath forms to
cap forms.
create
migration
stage (slug)
5 Slug stops migrating and (0.5 mm).
begins to form stalk in
differentiation stage.

Figure 12.22 The generalized life cycle of a cellular slime mold.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 12.23 The life cycle of a plasmodial slime mold.

10 Zygote 1 Multinucleate
develops plasmodium
by nuclear forms.
division and
cell growth.
9 Haploid gametes
fuse, producing
zygote. 2 Plasmodium grows,
distributing nutrients by
Sexual cytoplasmic streaming.

reproduction
Gamete
8
germinates
Channel of
from spore.
cytoplasmic
streaming

7 Spores are
released.
3 Plasmodium separates
into groups of
Sporangia protoplasm.
Asexual
reproduction
Stalk

4 Each group forms

sporangia on stalks.
6 Nuclei in spores go through
5 Spores develop
meiosis, forming gametes.
in sporangia.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Helminths
Kingdom Animalia

Nutritional Type Chemoheterotroph

Multicellularity All

Cellular Arrangement Tissues and organs

Food Acquisition Method Ingestive; absorptive

Characteristic Features Elaborate life cycles

Helminths are multicellular eukaryotic animals that generally

possess digestive, circulatory, nervous, excretory, and
reproductive systems.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Helminths (Parasitic Worms) vs. Free-living
classification and main characteristics
Reduced digestive system
Kingdom: Animalia Can absorb nutrients from the host’s body
Phylum: fluids, and tissues.

Platyhelminthes Reduced nervous system

They do not need an extensive nervous system
(flatworms)
because they do not have to search for food or
Class: trematodes respond much to their environment. The
(flukes) environment within a host is fairly constant.

Class: cestodes Reduced locomotion or completely

(tapeworms) lacking.
They are transferred from host to host, do not
Phylum: need to search actively for a suitable habitat.
Nematoda  Complex reproduction.
(roundworms) An individual produces large numbers of eggs,
by which a suitable host is infected.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Life Cycle of Helminths
 Monoecious (hermaphroditic)
Male and female reproductive systems in one animal. Two hermaphrodites may
copulate and simultaneously fertilize each other. A few types of hermaphrodites
fertilize themselves
 Dioecious
Separate male and female. In those species, reproduction occurs only when two
adults of the opposite sex are in the same host.
 Egg  larva(e)  adult
Flukes are given common names according to the tissue of the definitive host
in which the adults live (for example, lung fluke, liver fluke, blood fluke)
(a) General anatomy of an
adult fluke, shown in cross
section. The oral and ventral
suckers attach the fluke to the
host.
The mouth is located in the
center of the oral sucker.
Flukes are hermaphroditic;
The Asian liver fluke each animal contains both
testes and ovaries.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 12.26 The life cycle of the lung fluke, Paragonimus, spp. (paragonimiasis)

Infected crayfish is eaten by human, and Hermaphroditic adult

8 1
metacercaria develops into adult fluke. fluke releases eggs into
human lung.
7 In crayfish, cercaria Adult fluke
encysts to produce (7.5–12 mm long)
metacercaria.

Metacercaria
(0.25–0.5 mm) Definitive host
Eggs
Asexual Sexual
reproduction reproduction
Eggs reach water
2 after being excreted
in feces.
Cercaria leaves 4 Free-swimming
6 miracidium
snail and enters
Intermediate crayfish. enters snail.
host 3
Miracidium
develops
Cercaria in egg and
Intermediate host hatches
Redia from egg.
Inside snail, miracidium
5 develops into redia, which Miracidium
Cercaria (0.5 mm long) reproduces asexually (0.8 mm long)
to produce rediae; several
cercariae develop within redia.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Schistosomiasis (Schistosome or split-body)
1 Adult female
8 Cercariae travel
through circulatory flukes lay
system to intestinal eggs. Male
blood vessels, Definitive
where they mature Female Mouth
host (size:
into adults. Adult Sucker
15–20 mm)
flukes Eggs Female
Mouth

Male
7 Free-swimming (a) Male and female
cercariae penetrate schistosomes. The
Cercaria female lives in a groove
human skin, (0.13 mm) 2 Eggs reach
losing tail. body of on the ventral (lower)
water after surface of the male
being excreted schistosome
in human (“split-body”), is
feces or continuously fertilized,
urine. and continuously lays
Egg eggs. The sucker is used
Cercaria
(0.33 mm)
(0.15 mm) by the male to attach to
the host.
Intermediate 3 Eggs hatch into free-swimming
host larvae (miracidia).
6 Cercariae are released
from the snail.

5 Miracidium reproduces Miracidium

4 Miracidium (0.2 mm)
in snail, forming (b) Life cycle of Schistosoma,
several cercariae. penetrates
snail. cause of schistosomiasis.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 General anatomy of an adult tapeworm. The scolex (head), shown,
Scolex
consists of suckers and
 Intestinal parasites hooks that attach to the
Hooks
host’s tissues. The body
 Suckers for lengthens as new
attaching to the Sucker
proglottids form at the
intestinal mucosa of neck. Each mature
the definitive host; proglottid contains both
small hooks for Neck testes and ovaries.
attachment.
 Proglottids are
 Tapeworms do not continually produced
ingest the tissues, Sucker by the neck region
they lack a digestive as long as the scolex
Genital pore
system. is attached and alive.
Ovary
 Mature proglottid
 They absorb food contains both male
and female
 The body consists of reproductive organs.
segments called  The proglottids
proglottids. farthest away from
Mature proglottid
the scolex are the
will disintegrate and
release eggs mature ones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
containing eggs.
Humans as Definitive Hosts
Taenia saginata (Taeniasis)
Definitive • live in humans and can Cysticerci in beef muscle
Host reach a length of 6 m. • Upon ingestion by cattle, the
Humans are larvae hatch from the eggs and
the only known • The scolex is followed from the intestine migrate to
by a thousand muscle (meat), in which they
definitive host
encyst as cysticerci.
of the beef proglottids.
tapworm, • Cysticerci can be seen
Taenia saginata • The feces of an infected macroscopically in meat.
human contain mature
proglottids, each of • Humans become infected when
which contains they eat undercooked pork
thousands of eggs.
Prevention: Inspecting beef;
• Proglottids released To avoid the
use of untreated human sewage
thru the fecal material
as fertilizer in grazing pastures.
into environment are
ingested by an animal
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. that is grazing.
Humans as Intermediate Hosts
Echinococcus granulosus
Intermediate Humans are the intermediate hosts
Host 2. Eggs are ingested by deer, sheep, or humans.
Dogs and coyotes Humans can become infected by contaminating their
are the definitive hands with dog feces or saliva.
hosts for this
minute (2–8 mm) 3. The eggs hatch in the human’s small intestine, and
tapeworm. the larvae migrate to the liver or lungs.

1. Eggs are 4. The larva develops into a hydatid cyst. The cyst
excreted with contains thousands of scoleces
feces.
5. Humans are a dead-end for the parasite, but in the
wild, the cysts might be in a deer that is eaten by a
wolf

6. The scoleces would be able to attach themselves

in the wolf ’s intestine and produce proglottids
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The life cycle of the tapeworm, Echinococcus spp.

1 Adult tapeworm
releases eggs.
Intermediate
host
Scoleces from cyst
6 attach to intestine and 2 Human intermediate host
grow into adults. ingests eggs. Dead end.
Egg (30–38 mm)
Adult
tapeworm
Intermediate
host

Scolex
Sexual Asexual
reproduction reproduction 2 Intermediate host
ingests eggs.

Definitive
host Larva
5 Definitive host eats Eggs hatch, and larvae
3
intermediate host, migrate to liver or lungs.
Hydatid
ingesting cysts.
cyst

Brood capsule 4
Scolex Larvae develop
into hydatid cysts.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Nematodes (the roundworms)
General characteristics
 are cylindrical and tapered at each end.
 have a complete digestive system, consisting of a mouth, an
intestine, and an anus.
 Most species are dioecious.
 Males are smaller than females and have one or two hardened
spicule. Spicules are used to guide sperm to the female’s
genital pore.
 Some species are free-living, others are parasites on plants
and animals.
 Intestinal roundworms are the most common causes of
chronic infectious diseases.
 infecting more than 2 billion people world wide.
 Nematode infections of humans can be divided nto two
categories: those in which the egg is infective, and those in
which the larva is infective.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
 The nematode, Dirofilaria immitis
 is spread from host to host through the bites of Aedes
mosquitoes.
 It primarily affects dogs and cats, can infest human.
Larvae injected by the mosquito migrate to various organs,
where they mature into adults.
 The parasitic worm is called a heartworm because the adult
stage is often in the animal host’s heart, where it can kill its
host through congestive heart failure.

 The disease occurs on

every continent except
Antarctica.
 Wolbachia bacteria appear
to be essential to
development of the worm
embryos
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The pinworm Enterobius vermicularis
 Spends its entire life in a human host.
 Adult pinworms are found in the large intestine.
 From there, the female pinworm migrates to the anus to
deposit her eggs on the perianal skin.
 The eggs can be ingested by the host or by another person
exposed through contaminated clothing

g.

© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Trichinellosis is caused by a nematode that the
host acquires by eating encysted larvae in
undercooked meat of infected animals
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Arthropods as Vectors
 May transmit diseases (vectors)
 Kingdom: Animalia
 Phylum: Arthropoda (exoskeleton, jointed legs)
 Class: Insecta (6 legs) Lice, fleas, mosquitoes

 Class: Arachnida (8 legs) Mites and ticks

 Mechanical transmission
 Biological transmission
 Microbe multiplies in vector
 Definitive host
 Microbe’s sexual reproduction takes place in vector
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.