Equilibrium fields involving gravity – e.g.

Solar prominences
• Often in astrophysical fields gravity can play an important or dominant role
in the force balance
• Solar prominences are dense cool sheets of plasma suspended in the solar
atmosphere
• Observed as dark filaments from above,
flame-like sheets from the side
• Typical parameters:

n  1017 m3 , T  7000 K, B  5-10 10-4 T,

length  200,000 km, height  50,000 km, width  6000 km

• Usually situated near magnetic neutral lines (reversals in normal magnetic

field component)
• Can be very long-lived (weeks, months) – but may suddenly erupt

• Dense plasma supported against gravity mainly by magnetic tension force

of curved magnetic field lines
• The Kippenhahn-Schluter model is a simple model of prominence support
• Assumes: constant T (isothermal), constant Bx, By; all other quantities depend only on x
(horizontal coordinate across width)
• Horizontal and vertical equilibrium: dp 1 dBz Bz2
(with gas law – where m = mean particle   Bz 0 p  const;
dx 0 dx 2 0
mass)
1 dBz kT dB
Bx  g  Bx z  p  0.
0 dx 0 mg dx

dBz Bz2 B02

Combining and solving (see Ex Sheet 2): Bx   const= 
dx 2 2
x 2B 
Bz  B0 tanh   where w  x .
 w B0
(where Λ = kT/mg is gravitational scale height)
 4.3 Alfven waves and instabilities
• Consider a uniform cold plasma at rest – constant magnetic field and density
(zero pressure) B0  B0 zˆ , 
• Suppose a small disturbance is applied – perturbed magnetic field and velocity
are B  B0  B1 , v1 where B1 B0
Derivation 4.9 Derive the linearised MHD equations (neglecting all products of
small quantities): v 1
 1 
B B , 
t 0 1 0

B1
  B 0   v1
t
Derivation 4.10 Show that these can be combined to form wave equations for vx
and vy with wave speed being the Alfven speed v  B0
0 
A

• The basic solution for the perturbed velocity is v1x  v1 exp  kz  t  ,   vAk
Derivation 4.11 Show that the perturbed velocity and magnetic field are related by
B1 v
 1
B0 vA
Alfven waves:
• Are transverse
• Are incompressible waves with no pressure fluctuations
• Propagate in direction of mean (equilibrium) field
• Have parallel (or anti-parallel) fluctuations in magnetic field and velocity
• Are non-dispersive with constant wave speed vA
• Are analogous to waves on a stretched string – the restoring force is
magnetic tension

• The previous analysis may be extended to include pressure variations –

gives magnetosonic waves (see textbooks – beyond scope of this course)
• Alfven waves (and other modes) are present in solar corona and solar wind
• Also very important in tokamaks
Alfven receiving Nobel
prize for physics
Alfven wave spectrum in DIII D
tokamak
Alfven waves in Solar Wind near Venus
– from Belcher and Davis 1971
Note excellent correlation between
magnetic and velocity fluctuations
Alfven waves in a laboratory
linear device – from
Gekelman et al 2011
Visualisation of currents due to Alfven waves in a laboratory device
Gekelman et al 2005
 Observations of Alfven waves in the solar atmosphere

Observed Alfven
waves in lower solar
atmosphere

See Case Study

Jess et al,
Alfven waves in the Science, 323,
corona? 1582 (2009)
Tomczyk et al 2007
 • Alfven waves in corona
from Hinode

Simulation of Alfven
waves propagating
from solar
chromosphere to
corona
 Linear stability theory: normal modes
• Using a similar methodology to waves, we can examine stability of equilibrium fields which
are not uniform (e.g. magnetostatic fields from Section 4.2)

• Consider background static equilibrium (B0, p0) with small fluid displacement ξ

 v1
t
Linearise momentum equation (small disturbances) and combine with induction equation:
 2
0 2  F         B 0  B 0    B 0      B 0    .p0  p0 . 
1
t 0
• Assume all perturbed quantities have harmonic dependence eiωt where imaginary ω
corresponds to instability (exponential growth)
• Find (real) eigenvalues ω2 of   0 2  F 
• Unstable if ω2 < 0 (ω imaginary so exponential growth of disturbance in time – instead of
oscillation)
• Instability may be driven by current in equilibrium field OR pressure gradients (also by
gravity or fluid velocity shear)
Rayleigh-Taylor instability

• Heavy fluid suspended over light fluid is

unstable – similarly (in presence of
gravity) stratified fluid is unstable if dρ/dz
>0
• Free energy driving instability from
gravity
• Also applies if fluid is supported against
gravity by horizontal magnetic field
• Can also occur in an accelerating fluid
(accelerating reference frame equivalent
to gravity) - very important in inertial
confinement fusion

Simulation of RT
instability in NIF
 Current driven instabilities : sausage and kink instability

• An ideal magnetohydrodynamic instability

driven by current (twisted magnetic fields)
• Most unstable for a “Z-pinch” (purely azimuthal
field Bθ)
• Creates helical distortion (kink) or
compressions/ expansions (sausage)
• Stabilised by axial field (Bz) since: bending of
these field lines creates a restoring force due to
magnetic tension (kink) or compression creates
restoring force due to magnetic pressure
(sausage)
Consider small distortion of plasma
column with pure Bθ
Kink instability
of a current-
Kink: Helical disturbance. Stronger field
carrying column on inner side of kink/weaker on outer →
in a laboratory magnetic pressure imbalance causes
plasma device disturbance to grow
Hsu and Sausage: Symmetric disturbance. Stronger
Bellan 2002 field at compressions/weaker at
expansions - causes disturbance to grow
 4.4 Solving the momentum equation - solar and stellar winds
• Solar wind is outflow of plasma from the Sun – many other stars have
stellar winds (can be much stronger than Solar Wind)
• Some early evidence for existence of a solar wind was given by comet tails
– these always point away from Sun
• Solar wind then predicted theoretically by Parker (1958) and confirmed by
direct evidence of moving plasma by space craft from 1960s onwards
– First direct in situ measurements of flowing plasma from Mariner
– Voyager has measured solar wind velocity directly – to the edge of the
heliosphere
– Solar Wind velocity routinely measured by spacecraft near Earth e.g. ACE,
WIND
– ULYSSES measured solar wind out of the ecliptic plane (over poles of Sun)
• Termination shock near heliopause (boundary with interstellar medium) at
about 160 a.u.
 ionized tail
Observations of
comet tails
suggested outflow dust tail
from Sun
 The solar wind equation
• A hot hydrostatic corona cannot be in equilibrium with InterStellar Medium
– pressure at infinity (isothermal, spherically symmetric atmosphere) is
  GM o m p 
p  p0 exp 
 2 kTR 
(where R is solar radius) - see Ex Sheet 3. Putting in numbers gives a pressure
which is much greater than InterStellar Medium pressure
• This could be resolved by dropping one of the assumptions e.g. allow for a
radial outflow u
Derivation 4.12 Consider a steady-state, spherically-symmetric, isothermal
corona (temperature T) with radial flow u. Assume fully-ionised hydrogen
plasma which is a perfect gas; neglect magnetic force. Using the
momentum and mass conservation equations, derive the Solar Wind
equation
2kT 1 du 4kT GM o
(u 
2
)   2
mp u dr mp r r

• This is a first order Ordinary Differential Equation which can easily be

integrated to give 1 2 2kT 4kT GM o
u  ln u  ln r  C
2 mp mp r
where C is a constant of integration (hence family of solutions)
 Selection of solar wind solution

• Critical radius
GM o m p
rc 
4kT
• At critical radius, either du/dr = 0
(u(r) has a turning point) or u = cs
(flow speed is sonic)
Derivation 4.13 Discuss selection of
relevant solution for the solar
wind from the family of possible
Class
Class 55 solutions

• Solutions in classes 1, 3, 4, 5 can

be ruled out – only relevant
solution is class 2
• Solar wind solution starts with
low speed at solar surface –
becomes supersonic beyond rc
 Parker solar wind solution
Dependence of u on r (for different values of temperature T)

Speed u is increasing function of distance r – see Ex Sheet 3

In situ measured
solar wind
parameters at 1
au from ACE
(April 2008) –
magnetic field
components,
density, speed
and temperature
Ulysses – latitudinal dependence of solar wind

•Fast solar wind –

originates in open magnetic
field regions (mainly at high
latitudes)
•Slow solar wind –
originates in closed field
regions (mainly near
equator)
Voyager 2 – solar wind overview
The heliosphere
• Voyager spacecraft now in
heliosheath – soon to enter
Interstellar space
• Case study: Richardson,J.D. et al,
Nature 454, 63 (2008) – Voyager
crossing termination shock

youtube.com/watch?v=qq3U5o4Yblw
&feature=related
Strong winds in young stars

Bow shock in
young star LL Ori
 4.5 Magnetic reconnection and solar flares
• The solar corona, tokamaks etc are highly-
conducting plasmas which are well described
by ideal MHD – fieldlines frozen to the
plasma and fieldline connectivity (topology) is
preserved
• Release of magnetic energy by Ohmic
dissipation is extremely slow (see section 4.1)
(Diffusion time td = L2/η very long)
• However, in a thin current sheet (where
magnetic field reverses) or at a magnetic
neutral point (or X point) where magnetic
field locally vanishes, non-ideal effects allow
field lines to “break and reconnect”
2B  B  2  may be significant
if small length scale  L

• Magnetic topology changes during magnetic

reconnection
Derivation 4.14 A simple model of a
“current sheet” field is given by
B  Bz zˆ  B0 tanh  x   zˆ
Work out the current and the pressure
(if the field is in magnetostatic
equilibrium)

For X point field, see Ex Sheet 2.

• Magnetic energy is dissipated on

timescales much faster than Ohmic
diffusion time (td)
 Steady state reconnection – Sweet-Parker

• Steady inflow driven into current sheet – oppositely-directed fields

reconnect in current sheets, reconnected fields emerge in outflow region
Derivation 4.15 (Non-examinable) Consider steady 2D reconnection of
almost anti-parallel magnetic field lines in a long thin current sheet
(Sweet-Parker reconnection). Show that the plasma has outflow speed
at Alfven speed vA , maximum inflow speed S-1/2vA and the
reconnection timescale is
trec  S td  S t A   t Atd 
1 2 12 12

• Here S is the Lundquist number ( Re with v = vA)

• Much faster than resistive dissipation – but much slower than Alfven time

L2  td
LvA
S   1
 L vA t A
 Solar Flares

EIT (SOHO)

• Dramatic events releasing up to 1025 J over a period of hours – strong

brightening in soft x-rays
• Flares generate plasma heating and fast particle beams - signatures across the
em spectrum from gamma rays to radio
• Must be a release of stored magnetic energy as only magnetic field has sufficient
energy to account for observed emission (see Ex Sheet 2)
• Primary energy release process believed to be magnetic reconnection
SDO flare July 2011
Some flares
 More about solar flares
• Flares are complex phenomena which are not yet fully understood – beyond
scope of this course!
• A simplified version of the “standard model” is as follows:

• Magnetic energy is stored in the corona due to shearing or twisting of the

photospheric footpoints of the magnetic field (expect force-free fields – see
Section 4.2)
• A cool dense filament forms, suspended by magnetic field (prominences – see
Section 4.2)
• The field loses equilibrium or becomes unstable (Section 4.3) - filament rises
and erupts, field lines become stretched
• Rising field lines reconnect – magnetic reconnection heats plasma and
accelerated charged particles
• Chromosphere is heated – observed as Hα ribbons, dense chromospheric
material evaporates and fills coronal loops (seen as bright loops in X-rays)

Ex 4.5 Taking parameters B = 0.03 T, T = 1 million K, n = 1015 m-3 and L = 10,000

km, estimate stored magnetic energy in coronal field. Estimate also the time-
scale for Sweet-Parker reconnection.
 Brightening in chromosphere due to fast
particles from corona impinging on
chromosphere - Hα ribbons

Flare may be associated with

coronal mass ejection
UV Ceti, Rosat Reconnection in the universe
• Flare stars may release 104 – 106 times the energy of a large
solar flare
• Physical processes believed to be similar – energy release by
magnetic reconnection
• Magnetars are neutron stars with exterior magnetic fields
1014-15 G – the most strongly magnetised objects in universe
• Magnetars may periodically emit giant flares – first
discovered was SGR -525-66 in large Magellenic Cloud (1979)
• Believed to be due to magnetic reconnection triggered by
crustal cracking
• Also: Generation of stellar magnetic fields –
dynamo;Collapse of protostars;Galactic magnetic
fields;Intergalactic magnetic fields;Jets and accretion discs ;
Pulsars....
 Magnetic reconnection in laboratory plasmas

Tokamak sawteeth:
“Kink” type instability at q = 1 surface of tokamak leads to reconnection.

Variation of central temperature in a tokamak (from McCracken and Stott)

Magnetic Reconnection Experiment
MRX at Princeton – Yamada et al 1997
 4.6 Interaction of Solar Wind with Earth’s magnetosphere

• Supersonic solar wind hits

“obstacle” at a planet
• Magnetised planets are
(partly) shielded by their
magnetic fields – planets
have magnetospheres
• Bow shock upstream as
supersonic wind slows down
(c.f. sonic boom of supersonic
plane)
• Magnetopause- boundary of
region in which field lines
connect to Earth
• Magnetosheath – turbulent
boundary layer between solar
wind and magnetosphere
• Magnetotail – field lines
dragged out into long wake
by solar wind – different
magnetic polarities on either
side of neutral sheet
 Reconnection in magnetosphere

• Reconnection between Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) and

magnetospheric field at dayside magnetopause
• Depends on orientation of IMF – most effective when Solar Wind field is
southwards (oppositely directed to Earth’s magnetic field)
• Reconnection in magnetotail – oppositely directed fields on N and S of
neutral sheet - as new magnetic field is brought in by Solar Wind
Magnetosphere and Cluster mission

Culham Summer School, July 17th 2007

 Magnetic Multiscale Mission (MMS)
• Earth’s magnetosphere
as a laboratory to study
the microphysics of
magnetic reconnection
• NASA mission - 4 identical
satellites launched March
2015
 Aurora – interaction of charged particles from solar wind and
magnetosphere with neutral atmosphere
Solar wind
particles
entering
Earth’s
magnetic field
at polar cusps
may form
Aurorae when
they interact
with neutral
atmosphere
Aurora on Jupiter from Hubble
 The magnetopause and magnetotail (in a nutshell)
• The position of the dayside magnetopause is defined by pressure balance
between the dynamic pressure of incoming Solar Wind and the magnetic
pressure of the planetary magnetic field
Derivation 4.16 Use pressure balance arguments to estimate the position of
the Earth’s dayside magnetopause. Assume the solar wind has density and
speed n  7 10 m , u  400 km s and the magnetic field at the Earth’s
6 -3 -1

surface at the equator is 3 105 T

• The magnetopause represents a discontinuity in magnetic field and hence
is a current layer (current flows from dawn to dusk)
Derivation 4.17 By considering trajectories of ions and electrons at the
magnetopause, explain the origin of the current
• The polar cusps are locations in the magnetopause towards the dayside
where fieldlines directly connect the Solar Wind to the Earth’s surface at
high latitudes. Here charged particles can excite aurorae
• The magnetotail contains open field lines originating at high latitudes –
swept out by the solar wind and closed field lines at lower latitudes.
• In the N (S) hemisphere field is directed towards (away from) the Earth –
these field lines are separated by a current sheet – the plasma sheet
 Reading list
• Gurnett and Bhattarcharjee Chapter 6
• Goedbloed and Poedts Chapters 5, 8, 9
• Kulsrud Chapter 3, 5, 14
• Baumjohann and Treumann Chapter 8
• Boyd and Sanderson Chapters 4, 5
• Friedberg Chapter 11

Case studies:
• Jess,D. et al, Science, 323, 1582 (2009)
• Richardson,J.D. Et al, Nature 454, 63 (2008)

sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/
stereo.gsfc.nasa.gov/
solar-b.nao.ac.jp/index_e.shtml
www.windows2universe.org/spaceweather/

http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/videogallery/index.html?collection_id=57911
(Voyager at edge of solar system)