SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC

RESEARCH- An Introduction
 To understand science and scientific
approach one must understand the scientific
languages and the approach the scientists use.
For Example: Economic Development,
Independent and Dependent variable,
Randomization , Stratification, Parameter and
Statistics, Scaling of Attributes etc.
 Commonsense and scientific approach

A common man and the scientist both fix up

beliefs and test hypotheses relating to behavior
of phenomena: Consider the following:
Women are more religious than men in India
Advertisement should have gender consideration for
better impact.
People from a caste or ethnic group are enterprising.
Investment in company X is profitable.
Sales and advertizing expenditures are +ly related
These could be beliefs based on commonsense.
But…Science and commonsense differ in a
variety of ways in fixing beliefs.
Commonsense observes and relates
variables in an unsystematic i.e.
unorganized & unplanned way.
It often generalizes behavior of
phenomena in an uncontrolled way.
It tests hypotheses in a selective way i.e .it
selects evidences and gives explanation
simply because it is consistent with his
hypothesis.
The Scientist's approach is different.

Scientific approach is a systematically built

theoretical structure ( with a structured design
and a plan of investigation).
It tests beliefs/theories empirically and in a
controlled condition, where ever necessary.
A scientist knowing the selection tendency to be
a common psychological phenomenon, carefully
guards his research against his own
preconception and predilections (liking).
 The Scientist's approach……

Obvious relationships are empirically

tested and established. e.g.
Demand is inversely related to price. Advertising
expenditure & sale volume are positively related,
brand loyalty & economic status are related
Metaphysical explanations are ruled out in
scientific approach which lack empirical support.
Methods of fixing belief or generalizing
behavior of phenomena
Method of Tenacity.
Holding a belief since " people believe it to be true" -
Not trying to negate
Method of authority:
If religious book says it to be true
If a physicist of repute says it to be true
A priori method or Method of intuition
Beliefs/relationships between variables based on
reasons or a priori argument.
 Methods for fixing belief..Contd

Method of Science:
Fixing beliefs is based on built in checks, self
correction all along the way of highlighting behavior
and analysis of relationship between phenomena.
In doing so, one goes outside himself, his tradition
& authority ,his beliefs biases, values attitude and
emotions.
Subjective beliefs are checked against objective
reality.
 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
- A DEFINITION
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IS DEFINED
AS A SYSTEMATIC, CONTROLLED,
EMPIRICAL AND CRITICAL
INVESTIGATION OF HYPOTHETICAL
PROPOSITIONS ABOUT PRESUMED
RELATIONS AMONGST OBSERVED
PHENOMENA.
SUBJECTIVE BELIEFS ARE CHECKED
AGAINST OBJECTIVE REALITY
 Aim of Scientific Research

Aim of scientific research is basically

theorizing the behaviour/relationship
between variables/phenomena.
Scientific Research establishes general
laws covering the behavior of empirical
events and enables us to connect together
our knowledge of separately known events
or explain the relationship between
variables and make reliable predictions.
 SCIENTIFIC STATUS OF A SCIENCE
IT DEPENDS ON THE DEGREE AND
ACCURACY OF THE FOUR ASPECTS
MENTIONED IN THE DEFINITION OF
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.
THIS FIXES UP LIMITS WITH RESPECT TO
PHYSICAL SCIENCES AND SOCIAL
SCIENCES (EXACT AND INEXACT
SCIENCES).
 SESSION II
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

IN SOCIAL SCIENCE WE STUDY THE

BEHAVIOUR OF SOCIAL PHENOMENA.
QUESTIONS ARISES HERE IS “ CAN HUMAN
BEHAVIOR BE SUBJECTED TO SCIENTIFIC
ENQUIRY ?”
THE ANSWER TO THIS DEPENDS ON THE
DEGREE OF THE FOUR ASPECTS
MENTIONED IN THE DEFINITION OF
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH.
 STATUS OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

FOR THIS WE MAY EXMINE THE SEVERAL

SIMILARITIES AND DISSIMILARITIES
BETWEEN SOCIAL SCIENCES AND
PHYSICAL/NARURAL SCIENCES WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CONDUCTING
RESEARCH IN THESE SCIENCES
THUS, THE CHARACIERISTICS OF SOCIAL
SCIENCES MAY BE HIGHLIGHTED
 1. SOCIAL SCIENTISTS LIKE THE PHYSICAL
SCIENTISTS SEEK TO DISCOVER REGULARITY AND
ORDER IN SOCIAL BEHAVIOR

THIS IS DONE THROUGH

i) OBSERVATION AND MEASUREMENT OF SOCIAL

BEHAVIOUR / VARIABLES.
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES
COULD BE MEASURED
A SYSTEMATIC MEASUREMENT MUST BE JUDGED
ON THE BASIS OF ITS UTILITY RATHER THAN
ABSOLUTE TRUTH IN SOCIAL SCIENCES.
e.g. Intelligence, brand loyalty etc
 ii) DISCOVERING REGULARITIES
AND FRAMING THEORIES IN SOCIAL SIENCES.
CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING REGULARITIES IN BOTH THE
SCIENCES.
An object falling to earth, water flowing downstream,H2 O is
water, application of fertilizer results in a good crop.
Women are more religious than men, higher income house
holds have luxury cars/CD players etc., buying a share of
company X is profitable.
REGULARITIES IN SOCIAL SCIENCE REPRESENT
PROBABILISTIC PATTERN.
FIXES LIMITS FOR SUBJECTIVITY AND
OBJECTIVITYY(POSITIVISM) IN BOTH THE SCIENCES
PHYSICAL SCIENCES ARE MORE REGULAR THAN SOCIAL
SCIENCES:
2. LOGICAL REASONING IN PHYSIACAL AND
SOCIAL SCIENCES.
REASONING: DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE

DEDUCTIVE REASONING IS A PROCESS FROM GENERAL

PRINCIPLE TO SPECIFIC INSTANCES.
INDUCTIVE REASONING IS A PROCESS FROM SPECIFIC
OBSERVATIONS TO GENERAL PRINCIPLES
DEDUCTIVE METHOD IS STRONGER IN HAVING THEORITICAL
SUPPORT WHEREAS, INDUCTIVE METHOD IS STRONGER IN
EMPIRICAL SUPPORT.
A CYCLICAL PROCESS OF INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION ARE
FOLLOWED IN BOTH THE CIENCES WITH RESPECT TO
THEORISING BEHAVIOUR/PHENOMENA.
THEORIES ARE TESTED AND RESTATED
3.DETERMINISM IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING PHENOMENA

IN THE ECONOMY.
There is a steady growth of FDI in India
after 1990s, BSE sensex is falling over
the last few months, cost of production of
X is increasing, increase in adv
expenditure has not resulted in increase in
the market share of a product, price rise of
car over the last few years has not been
associated with a decline in demand etc.
NOTHING JUST HAPPENS. ALL EVENTS HAVE
ANTECEDENT CAUSES OR A PRIORI
REASONS (THE THEORY OF CAUSATION )

THERE COULD BE SINGLE OR MULTIPLE

CAUSES FOR ALL THE PHENOMENA.
VERY OFTEN THE CAUSES LEADING TO
THE OCCURANCE OF AN EVENT/
PHENOMENON ARE KNOWN AS
DETERMINANTS .
THERE IS A PROBABILISTIC DETERMINISM
IN THE BEHAVIOUR OF SOCIOE-CONOMIC
PHENOMENA.
 4. GENERALISATION

A SOCIAL SCIENTIST BEGINS TO EXPLAIN A

LIMITED RANGE OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OR
BEHAVIOUR OF A LIMITED SUB-SET OF
POPULATION AND THEN NORMALLY
EXPANDS HIS FINDINGS TO EXPLAIN THE
BEHAVIOUR OF OTHER SUB-SETS (i.e. S/he
generalizes the behavior of variables )

THE PROCESS OF INDUCTION IS USEFUL IN

GENERALIZATION, BUT THE SCIENTIST IS
NOT INTERESTED IN SPECIFIC
OBSERVATION
For example:

A RESEARCHER IS LESS INTERESTED IN THE

INDIVIDUAL RESPONSE TO A PRICE CHANGE;
RATHER HE IS INTERESTED IN THE GENERAL
BEHAVIOUR OF THE CONSUMERS.

A DISCOVERY OF A CERTAIN BEHAVIOUR OF A

GROUP OF PEOPLE IS LESS USEFUL THAN THAT
HAS UNIVERSAL APPLICATION.
HOWEVER, GENERALISATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE IS
RELATED TO PROBABILISTIC DETERMINISM.

Hypothesis testing with F & t statistics.

5. PARSIMONY

MULTIPLE CAUSATION SUGGESTS THAT

SOCIAL/ECONOMIC PHENOMENA ARE EXPLAINED
USING MULTIVARIATE MODELS WHERE SEVERAL
VARIABLES ARE USED.
ADDITIONAL VARIABLES INCREASE
EXPLANATORY POWER OF A MODEL (IN A
DEPENDENCY RELATIONSHIP), BUT IT ALSO
COMPLICATES THE RELATIONSHIP (MODEL) AND
MAKES ESTIMATION DIFFICULT.
USE OF MORE VARIABLES DECREASES
GENERALIZABILITY SINCE DIFFERENT VARIABLES
MAY HAVE DIFFERENT IMPACT ON DIFFERENT
POPULATION SUB-SET.
Consider the following:
Expenditure of a H.H on a Commodity may depend on
the following:
Income of the household, Family members, Cost of
living, Standard of living, Price of the commodity,
Location of H.H.. Season, Attitude of a person,
Demonstration effect, Management of the house hold,
Durability of the product, Price of substitute ,Cultural
back ground ,Proximity to market, Sex ration in the h.h.
Media advertisement for the product, Price of
complimentary goods. Quantity of consumption etc.
etc.
 THUS, ONE HAS TO IDENTIFY THE MORE OR
LESS RELEVANT VARIABLES WITH “A
PRIORI” REASONING.

A JUDICIOUS DECISION IS WARRANTED IN

EXPLAINING SOCIO-ECONOMIC
BEHAVIOUR.

PARSIMONY IN SOCIAL SCIENCE REFERS TO

“MORE UNDERSTANDING FROM LEAST
VARIABLES”
 6. SPECIFICITY
IT REFERS TO THE SPECIFICATION OF METHODS OF
MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES

Conceptualisation of variables and use of proxy

variables
Conceptualizing and measuring of variables
differs in physical and social sciences e.g.
- acceleration, force, gravitation.
- Industrialization, brand preference,
spendthriftness, literacy, Intelligence.
religiocity etc
We use proxy variables in social sciences
 7.EMPIRICAL VERIFICATION

FORMULATION OF GENERAL LAWS OR MODELS

ARE NOT USEFUL UNLESS THEY CAN BE VERIFIED
THROUGH COLLECTION AND MANUPULATION OF
DATA.
EXPLANATION OF MODELS MUST MAKE SENSE
AND THEY MUST CORRESPOND TO WHAT IS BEING
ACTUALLY STUDIED/OBSERVED. E.g.
Personal Expenditure = f ( Income)
Brand Pref.= f (Awareness and Economic Status)
Economic Development = f (Industrialization)
Relationship is meaningless unless variables are
specified and data could be collected on them.
 8. INTERSUBJECTIVITY

SUBJECTIVITY DIFFERES BETWEEN SOCIAL

SCIENTISTS.
Inter-subjectivity refers to situations in which
different social scientists will arrive at
different conclusions using their own ideas
and perceptions on variables and their
relationships. But when the study is
replicated using a reported design and
methodology the ideas may converge.
If it is not, then there is a “paradigm shift” or
change in the theory.
 9.OPENNESS TO MODIFICATIONS

PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES ARE OPEN TO

COUNTLESS MODIFICATION AND RESTATEMENT
OF THEORIES.
THIS IS MORE TRUE WITH SOCIAL SCIENCE SINCE
SOCIAL PHENOMENA COME UNDER THE PERVIEW
OF IDEOLOGY:
RELIGIOUS,SOCIOPLITICAL,SOCIOECONOMIC AND
PHILOSOPHICAL ON THE ONE HAND,HUMANE AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL ON THE OTHER.
E.g. Recent research on Atoms Large Hadron Collider &
and medical research on human brain in physical
sciences and various modifications in social sciences.
 A Concluding Remark
The characteristics of social science discussed
above may suggest that scientific research is
possible in the field of social sciences.
However, a caveat is in order.
Subjective beliefs are checked against objective
reality in social science but the process and out
come are less exact as compared to the physical
sciences. The degree of exactness differs with
respect to the nature of social sciences.