(19.

2 Survey of
Amphibians)
Amphibians: The First Terrestrial
Vertebrates
 (19.2 Survey of
Amphibians)
Amphibians occur on all continents except Antarctica,
but they are absent in many oceanic islands. The nearly
6,000 modern species are a mere remnant of this
once-diverse group. Modern amphibians belong to three
orders: Caudata, the salamanders; Anura, the frogs and
toads; and Gymnophiona, the caecilians.
Order
Gymnophiona
The Caecilians
Members of the Order Gymnophiona (Greek,
gymnos – naked + ophineos – like a snake) are
the caecilians. Zoologists have described about
160 species confined to tropical regions,
although some caecilians are aquatic, most are
wormlike burrowers that feed on worms and
other invertebrates in the soil. Caecilians
appear segmented because of folds in the skin
that overlie separations between muscle
bundles.
Caecilians appear segmented
because of folds in the skin that
overlie separations between
muscle bundles. A retractile
tentacle between their eyes and
nostrils may transport chemicals
from the environment to the
olfactory cells in the roof of the
mouth. Skin covers the eyes;
thus, caecilians are probably
nearly blind.
Fertilization is internal in
caecilians. Larval stages are
often passed within the
oviducts, where they scrape
the inner lining of the
oviducts with fetal teeth to
feed. The young emerge from
the female as miniature
adults. Other caecilians lay
eggs that develop into either
aquatic larvae or embryos
that develop on land.
Order Caudata
The Salamanders
Members of the Caudata (Latin, cauda –
tail + Greek, ata – to bear) are the
salamanders. Most of the 400 species of
salamanders are found in the North
Hemisphere, with secondary radiation to
tropical and subtropical regions. They
possess a tail throughout their life, and
both pairs of legs, when present, are
relatively unspecialized.
Most terrestrial salamanders live in moist
forest-floor litter and have aquatic larvae.
Numerous families live in caves, where
constant temperature and moisture
conditions create a nearly ideal
environment. Salamanders in the family
Plethodontidae are the most fully terrestrial
salamanders in that most lay their eggs on
land and the young hatch as miniatures of
Most terrestrial salamanders live
in moist forest-floor litter and
have aquatic larvae. Numerous
families live in caves, where
constant temperature and
moisture conditions create a
nearly ideal environment.
Salamanders in the family
Plethodontidae are the most
fully terrestrial salamanders in
that most lay their eggs on land
and the young hatch as
miniatures of the adult.
Members of the family
Salamandridae are
commonly called the
newts. They spend most
of their lives in water and
frequently retain caudal
fins. Salamanders range in
length from only a few
centimeters to 1.5 m (the
Japanese giant
salamander, Andrias
japonicus).
the Japanese giant salamander
Andrias japonicus
 Hellbender - Cryptobranchus alleganiensis
The largest North American salamander which reaches
lengths of about 65 cm
Most salamanders have internal
fertilization without copulation. Males
produce a pyramidal, gelatinous
spermatophore that is capped with
sperm and deposited on the substrate.
Females pick up the sperm cap with the
cloaca and store the sperm in a special
pouch, the spermatheca.
Most salamanders have
internal fertilization
without copulation.
Males produce a
pyramidal, gelatinous
spermatophore that is
capped with sperm and
deposited on the
substrate. Females pick
up the sperm cap with
the cloaca and store
the sperm in a special
pouch, the
spermatheca.
Eggs are fertilized as they pass through
the cloaca and are usually deposited
singly , in clumps or in strings. Larvae
are similar to adults but smaller. They
often possess external gills, a tail fin,
larval dentition, and a rudimentary
tongue. The aquatic larval stage usually
metamorphoses into a terrestrial adult.
Many other salamanders undergo
incomplete metamorphosis and are
paedomorphic; that is, they become
sexually mature while retaining
ancestral larval characteristics.
Obligate paedomorphosis occurs in
mudpuppies. These species retain larval
characteristics and have never been
observed to undergo metamorphosis.
Other salamanders undergo facultative
paedomorphosis, for example,
salamanders in the genus Ambyostoma.
Some of these salamanders retain larval
characteristics as long as their pond
habitats retain water. When the pond
begins to dry, however, the salamander
metamorphoses to its terrestrial form,
losing its gills and respiring with lungs.
Order
Anura
The Toads and Frogs
The order Anura (Greek, a – without +
oura, tail) includes about 4,000 species
of frogs, anurans live in moist
environments, except in high latitudes
and on some oceanic islands. A few
even occur in dry deserts. Adults lack
tails, and caudal (tail) vertebrae fuse
into a rodlike structure called the
urostyle. Hindlimbs are long and
muscular and end in webbed feet.
The order Anura (Greek, a –
without + oura, tail) includes
about 4,000 species of frogs,
anurans live in moist
environments, except in high
latitudes and on some
oceanic islands. A few even
occur in dry deserts. Adults
lack tails, and caudal (tail)
vertebrae fuse into a rodlike
structure called the urostyle.
Hindlimbs are long and
muscular and end in webbed
feet.
 Anurans have diverse
life histories.
Fertilization is almost
always external, and eggs
and larvae are typically
aquatic. Larval stages,
called tadpoles, have
well-developed tails.
Their plump bodies lack limbs until near the end
of their larval existence. Unlike adults, the
larvae are herbivores and possess a
proteinaceous, beaklike structure used in
feeding. Anuran larvae undergo a drastic and
rapid metamorphosis from the larval to the
adult body form.
The distinction
between “frog” and
“toad” is more
vernacular than
scientific. “Toad”
usually refers to
anurans with
relatively dry and
warty skin that are
more terrestrial than
other members of the
order. Numerous
distantly related taxa
have these
characteristics. True
toads belong to the
family Bufonidae.
Frogs have
relatively
smooth skin and
prefer more
aquatic
habitats. As
with toads,
numerous
anuran families
share these
characteristics.
True frogs
belong to the