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INTERNATIONAL AIR
TRANSPORT NETWORK

DIPLOMA IN AVIATION
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OBJECTIVES

 Concept of airspace
 Air routes
 The international Air-route
network
 Aeronautical Charts
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Navigation Terms
 Course - planned or actual path of the
aircraft over the ground
– True course
– Magnetic course
 Heading - direction the aircraft is pointing
 Drift - the effect of wind
 Drift correction - degrees added to or
subtracted from aircraft heading
 Nautical mile (nm) - measurement used in
air navigation
 Knots (kts) - nautical miles per hour
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Concept of Airspace
The airspace is a spatial volume through which aircraft
movements are carried out.

Controlled airspace is airspace of defined dimensions within

which ATC services are provided.

The level of control varies with different classes of airspace.

Controlled airspace usually imposes higher weather
minimums than are applicable in uncontrolled airspace. It is
the opposite of uncontrolled airspace.
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Controlled airspace is established mainly for three

different reasons:
 high-volume air traffic areas, e.g. near airports

 IFR traffic under ATC guidance

• security, e.g. ADIZ

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 Controlled airspace usually exists in the immediate

vicinity of busier airports, where aircraft used in
commercial air transport flights are climbing out from or
making an approach to the airport, or at higher levels
where air transport flights would tend to cruise. Some
countries also provide controlled airspace almost
generally, however in most countries it is common to
provide uncontrolled airspace in areas where significant
air transport or military activity is not expected.
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ICAO classifies airspace in seven classes from

classes A to G. Controlled airspace is classified, in order of
decreasing ATC regulation of flights. Flight under
instrument flight rules (IFR) is allowed in all controlled
airspace; flight under visual flight rules (VFR) is
permitted in all airspace except class A.
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Airspace Concept
“Airspace concepts are developed to satisfy explicit strategic
objectives”

Strategic Objectives
 Safety
 Time Saving
 Fuel Saving
 Traffic Capacity
 Efficiency
 Access
 Environment
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Air Routes

 Improved airspace capacity!

 Reduced congestion and delay!
 More efficient flight levels!
 Reduce fuel – lower emissions!
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Familiarizatio
n of
Air
Route
Structure
in
Colombo
FIR
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Great-circle distance

 The great-circle is the shortest distance between two

points on the surface of a sphere, measured along the
surface of the sphere
 Through any two points on a sphere which are not
directly opposite each other, there is a unique great circle.
The two points separate the great circle into two arcs. The
length of the shorter arc is the great-circle distance
between the points.
 Between two points which are directly opposite each other,
called antipodal points, there are infinitely many great
circles, but all great circle arcs between antipodal points
have the same length, i.e. half the circumference of the
circle, or , where r is the radius of the sphere.
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A great circle is defined as any circle drawn on a globe (or

other sphere) with a center that includes the center of the
globe. Thus, a great circle divides the globe into two equal
halves. Since they must follow the circumference of the
Earth to divide it, great circles are about 40,000 kilometers
(24,854 miles) in length along meridians. At the equator
though, a great circle is a little bit longer as the Earth is
not a perfect sphere.

Navigation with Great Circles

The most famous use of great circles in geography is for
navigation because they represent the shortest distance
between two points on a sphere. Their presence was
discovered by ancient mathematicians.
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Global Locations of Great Circles

Great circles are easily identified on a globe based on the lines of

latitude and longitude. Each line of longitude, or meridian, is the same
length and represents half of a great circle. This is because each meridian
has a corresponding line on the opposite side of the Earth. When
combined, they cut the globe into equal halves, representing a great
circle. For example, the Prime Meridian at 0° is half of a great circle. On
the opposite side of the globe is the International Date Line at 180°. It
too represents half of a great circle. When the two are combined, they
create a full great circle which cuts the Earth into equal halves.
The only line of latitude, or parallel, characterized as a great circle is the
equator because it passes through the exact center of the Earth and
divides it in half. Lines of latitude north and south of the equator are not
great circles because their length decreases as they move toward the
poles and they do not pass through Earth's center. As such, these parallels
are considered small circles.
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Prime Meridian

 The meridian of longitude 0 degrees, used as

the origin for the measurement of longitude.
The meridian of Greenwich, England, is the
internationally accepted prime meridian in most
cases.
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Longitude and
Latitude
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Latitude

 Angular distance, in
degrees, minutes,
and seconds
measured from the
center of the Earth,
of a point north or
south of the Equator.
Latitude may also be
measured in decimal
degrees.
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 Latitude (shown as a horizontal line) is the angular distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds of a point north or south of the
Equator. Lines of latitude are often referred to as parallels.

 Lines of latitude measure north-south position between the poles. The equator is defined as 0 degrees, the North Pole is 90
degrees north, and the South Pole is 90 degrees south. Lines of latitude are all parallel to each other, thus they are often referred
to as parallels.

The memory rhyme I use to help remember that lines of latitude denote north-south distance is:
 "Tropical latitudes improve my attitude"

One degree of latitude is

60 nautical miles, 69 statute miles or 111 km.
 One minute of latitude is
1 nautical mile, 1.15 statute miles, or 1.85 km.
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Latitude and Longitude

 Where they cross defines a

point on the earth
 By convention, latitude is
stated first
 Latitude is Based on Earth’s
motion
• Axis of rotation defines
poles and Equator
 Arbitrary point of Greenwich,
England was chosen for ‘prime
meridian’.
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North Latitudes

Latitude
Equator

South Latitudes
 Parallels
 Measure How Far North or South of Equator
 Zero Degrees is Equator
 “90 Degrees North” is the North Pole
 “90 Degrees South” is the South Pole
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West Longitude Prime Meridian East Longitude

Longitude

 Half Great Circles Intersecting at the Poles

 Measure How Far East or West of England
 Zero Degrees is Prime Meridian (England)
 Numbers between 0 and 180 are either East or West
Longitude
 180 Degrees is opposite side of globe from England
– near international date line in Pacific Ocean
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Longitude

 Angular distance, in
degrees, minutes,
and seconds
measured from the
center of the Earth,
of a point east or
west of the Prime
Meridian. Longitude
may also be
measured in decimal
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Longitude (shown as a vertical line) is the angular

distance, in degrees, minutes, and seconds, of a point
east or west of the Prime (Greenwich) Meridian. Lines
of longitude are often referred to as meridians.

Lines of longitude, or meridians, run between the North

and South Poles. They measure east-west position. The
prime meridian is assigned the value of 0 degrees, and
runs through Greenwich, England. Meridians to the west
of the prime meridian are measured in degrees west and
likewise those to the east of the prime meridian are
measured to by their number of degrees east.
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 Distance between Lines If you divide the circumference of the earth

(approximately 25,000 miles) by 360 degrees, the distance on the earth's
surface for each one degree of latitude or longitude is just over 69 miles,
or 111 km. Note: As you move north or south of the equator, the distance
between the lines of longitude gets shorter until they actually meet at the
poles. At 45 degrees N or S of the equator, one degree of longitude is
about 49 miles.

Minutes and Seconds For precision purposes, degrees of longitude and

latitude have been divided into minutes (') and seconds ("). There are 60
minutes in each degree. Each minute is divided into 60 seconds. Seconds
can be further divided into tenths, hundredths, or even thousandths.

For example, our office on Galveston Island, Texas, USA, is located at 29

degrees, 16 minutes, and 22 seconds north of the equator, and 94
degrees, 49 minutes and 46 seconds west of the Prime Meridian.
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The International Air-route Network

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What are the busiest air routes in the world?

 London-Paris?
 New York-Chicago?
 New York – Washington, D.C. (dist of colombia)
 Moscow-St. Petersburg?

 Not a single route is in North America or Europe.

 13 of the 15 routes are in Asia Pacific (one is in Africa
and one South America).

 13 of the 15 are domestic routes. Taipei – Hong Kong

is in some sense almost a domestic route.
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Top 15 Routes by Seat Capacity in

2015:
 Seoul Gimpo – Jeju (South Korea domestic)

 Sapporo Chitose – Tokyo Haneda (Japan

domestic)

 Tokyo Haneda – Fukuoka (Japan domestic)

 Melbourne – Sydney (Australia domestic)

 Taipei Taoyuan – Hong Kong

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 Okinawa – Tokyo Haneda (Japan domestic)

 Beijing – Shanghai Hongqiao (China domestic)

 Osaka Itami – Tokyo Haneda (Japan domestic)

 Rio de Janeiro – Sao Paulo (Brazil domestic)

 Surabaya – Jakarta (Indonesia domestic)

 Ho Chi Minh City – Hanoi (Vietnam domestic)

 Sydney – Brisbane (Australia domestic)

 Johannesburg – Capetown (South Africa domestic)

 Jakarta – Singapore
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Top Ten Air routes of the world-2013

 1. Jeju-Seoul: 10.1 million passengers.

 2. Sapporo-Tokyo: 8.2 million passengers.
 3. Rio de Janeiro-Sao Paulo: 7.7 million passengers.
 4. Beijing-Shanghai: 7.2 million passengers.
 5. Melbourne-Sydney: 6.9 million passengers.
 6. Osaka-Tokyo: 6.7 million passengers.
 7. Fukuoka-Tokyo: 6.6 million passengers.
 8. Hong Kong-Taipei: 5.5 million passengers.
 9. Okinawa-Tokyo: 4.6 million passengers.
 10. Cape Town-Johannesburg: 4.4 million passengers.
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2012 2011
Rank City 1 City 2 Passengers Passengers Distance[3]
(in millions) (in millions)

1 Seoul Jeju 10.156 9.9 450 km

2 Tokyo Sapporo 8.211 7.5 819 km

3 São Paulo Rio de Janeiro 7.716 7.6+ 366 km

4 Beijing Shanghai 7.246 6.6+ 1075 km

5 Sydney Melbourne 6.943 7.0+ 706 km

6 Tokyo Osaka 6.744 7.5 405 km

7 Tokyo Fukuoka 6.640 6.6+ 883 km

8 Hong Kong Taipei 5.513 6.2+ 780 km

9 Tokyo Okinawa 4.584 4.1 1554 km

10 Johannesburg Cape Town 4.407 4.5 1271 km

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The busiest air routes in the world by number of passengers

2012 Passengers 2011 Passengers
Rank Airport 1 Airport 2 Distance[3]
(in millions)[1] (in millions)[2]
Seoul-Gimpo Jeju
1 10.156 9.9 450 km
Airport International Airp
ort
Sapporo-New
2 Tokyo Haneda 8.211 7.5 819 km
Chitose Airport

4 Congonhas-São PaRio de Janeiro-Sa 7.716 7.6+ 366 km

ulo Airport ntos Dumont Airpo
rt

5 Beijing Capital Int Shanghai Hongqiao 7.246 6.6+ 1075 km

ernational Airport International Ai
rport
3 Sydney Airport Melbourne Airpor 6.943 7.0+ 706 km
6 Tokyo Haneda tOsaka Itami 6.744 7.5 405 km
7 Tokyo Haneda Fukuoka Airport 6.640 6.6+ 883 km

8 Hong Kong InternaTaiwan Taoyuan In 5.513 6.2+ 780 km

tional Airport ternational Airpo
rt
9 Tokyo Haneda Okinawa Airport 4.584 4.1 1554 km

10 Johannesburg OR TCape Town Interna 4.407 4.5 1271 km

ambo Internationa tional Airport
l Airport
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Top 21 passenger air routes

Rank Europe (2011)
Airport 1 Airport 2
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Passengers (2011)
1 Madrid/Barajas Barcelona/El Prat 3,102,436 **
2 Toulouse/Blagnac Paris/Orly 2,322,456
3 Nice/Côte d'Azur Paris/Orly 2,236,436
4 Catania/Fontanarossa Rome/Fiumicino 1,842,940
5 Frankfurt Berlin/Tegel 1,792,655
6 Oslo/Gardermoen Trondheim/Værnes 1,749,545
7 Munich Hamburg 1,717,734
8 Oslo/Gardermoen Bergen/Flesland 1,691,887
9 Berlin/Tegel Munich 1,667,408
10 Barcelona/El Prat Palma de Mallorca/Son 1,639,423
Sant Joan
11 Madrid/Barajas Palma de Mallorca/Son 1,604,853
Sant Joan
12 Frankfurt Hamburg 1,587,593
13 Munich Düsseldorf 1,569,364
14 London/Heathrow Dublin 1,556,111
15 Milan/Linate Rome/Fiumicino 1,524,433
16 Rome/Fiumicino Palermo/Falcone Borselli 1,499,933
no
17 London/Heathrow Frankfurt 1,459,909
18 Madrid/Barajas Gran Canaria 1,438,377
19 Oslo/Gardermoen Stavanger/Sola 1,434,043
20 Amsterdam/Schiphol London/Heathrow 1,406,964
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Busiest air routes between an airport in Europe (EU, Switzerland, Iceland and
Norway) and outside Europe
Rank Airport 1 Airport 2 Passengers
(2010)

1 London/Heathrow New York/John F Kennedy 2,551,276

2 London/Heathrow Dubai/Intl 1,974,098
3 London/Heathrow Hong Kong/Chep Lap Kok 1,801,520
4 London/Heathrow Singapore/Changi 1,507,032
5 London/Heathrow Los Angeles/Intl 1,419,144
6 Paris/Charles De Gaulle New York/John F Kennedy 1,190,914

7 Paris/Charles De Gaulle Montreal/Pierre Elliott Trudeau 1,158,381

8 London/Heathrow Chicago/O'Hare 1,138,579

9 Paris/Orly Guadeloupe/Pointe-à-Pitre 1,098,322
10 London/Heathrow New York/Newark Liberty(NJ) 1,091,804
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Busiest air routes by city pairs within the United States

Rank City 1 City 2 Passengers (2013)
1 San Francisco, CA Los Angeles, CA 7,733,200
(Metro Area) (Metro Area)
2 New York City, NY Miami, FL (Metro 5,578,900
(Metro Area) Area)
3 New York City, NY Los Angeles, CA 4,493,900
(Metro Area) (Metro Area)
4 Chicago, IL New York City, NY 3,828,600
(Metro Area)
5 Orlando, FL New York City, NY 3,732,500
(Metro Area)
6 New York City, NY San Francisco, CA 3,329,600
(Metro Area) (Metro Area)
7 Boston, MA (Metro Washington, DC 3,043,100
Area) (Metro Area)
8 Seattle, WA Los Angeles, CA 2,514,300
(Metro Area)
9 Atlanta, GA (Metro New York City, NY 2,495,100
Area) (Metro Area)
10 Las Vegas, NV Los Angeles, CA 2,418,200
(Metro Area)
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Aeronautical charts

An aeronautical chart is a map designed to assist in

navigation of aircraft, much as nautical charts do for
watercraft, or a roadmap for drivers. Using these charts
and other tools, pilots are able to determine their
position, safe altitude, best route to a destination,
navigation aids along the way, alternative landing areas
in case of an in-flight emergency, and other useful
information such as radio frequencies and airspace
boundaries. There are charts for all land masses on
Earth, and long-distance charts for trans-oceanic travel.
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Mandatory Charts

1. Aerodrome Obstacle Chart- ICAO Type A

2. Precision Approach Terrain Chart- ICAO
3. Enroute Chart- ICAO
4. Instrument Approach Chart – ICAO
5. Aerodrome Chart-ICAO
6. World Aeronautical Chart- ICAO, 1:1 000 000
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Non-Mandatory Charts

1. Aerodrome Obstacle Chart- ICAO Type B

2. Aerodrome Ground Movement Chart-ICAO
3. Aircraft Parking/Docking Chart-ICAO
4. Aeronautical Chart –ICAO
5. Aeronautical Navigation Chart- Small Scale
6. Plotting Chart- ICAO
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Conditionally Required Charts

1. Aerodrome Obstacle Chart-ICAO Type C

2. Area Chart-ICAO
3. Standard Departure Chart-Instrument (SID)-
ICAO
4. Standard Arrival Chart-Instrument (STAR)-
ICAO
5. Visual Approach Chart-ICAO
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 Aerodrome Chart ICAO
 This chart is available for the aerodrome designated for use by international commercial air transport
and are designed to facilitate the ground movement of aircraft to and form the RWY and Apron. It also
provides essential operational information at the aerodrome.
 Aircraft Parking/Docking Chart-ICAO
 This chart provides detailed information to facilitate ground movement of aircraft between the taxiways
and the aircraft Parking/docking stands.
 Instrument Approach Chart ICAO
 This chart is produced for the aerodrome where instrument approaches have been established. A
separate chart has been provided for each procedure showing plan and profile views of holding,
approach and missed approach, radio facilities and relevant topographical information.
 Aerodrome Obstacle Chart ICAO
 This chart contains detailed information on obstacles in the take-off flight path of
KATUNAYAKE/Bandaranaike Intl. Airport Colombo. It is shown in plan and profile view. This obstacle
information provides the data necessary to enable an operator to comply with the operating limitations
of ICAO Annex 6. parts 1 and 11, Chapter 5.
 Area Chart ICAO
 The purpose of this chart is to provide detailed information on the transition between the en-route
phase and the approach to an aerodrome, the transition between the take-off and the en-route phase
of flight and flights through areas of complex ATS routes or airspace structure
 Standard Departure Chart- Instrument (SID) ICAO
 These charts provide flight crew with information that will enable them to comply with the designed
standard departure route- Instrument, from take-off phase to the enroute phase.
 World Aeronautical Chart ICAO
 These charts are produced by the Department of Surveys on behalf of the DGCA for the use of Pre-
flight planning.
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World aeronautical chart

 These charts are similar to sectional charts and the symbols are the same except there is less detail due to the
smaller scale, and because of this, it is seldom used for visual flight rules flight. WACs show topographic
information, airports and radio navigational aids. They are primarily useful for strategic flight planning, where a
comprehensive view of the entire flight area is useful.

World Aeronautical Charts cover land areas at a standard size and scale for navigation by moderate speed
aircraft and aircraft operating at high altitudes. The topographical information includes city tints, principal roads,
railroads, distinctive landmarks, drainage patterns and relief. The aeronautical information includes visual and
radio aids to navigation, airports, airways, restricted areas, obstructions and other pertinent data. Because of
their smaller scale, these charts do not show as much detailed information as appears on the Sectional and
Terminal Area Charts. For example, Class D and Class E airspace and the limits of controlled airspace are not
shown. Because some information is not shown, World Aeronautical Charts are not recommended for exclusive
use by pilots of low speed, low altitude aircraft.

They are produced at a scale of 1:1,000,000 (approximately 1 inch = 13.7 nautical miles or 16 statute miles)

 These charts are revised annually.

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Sectional Charts
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World aeronautical chart

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World aeronautical chart

NA-1 Northern North America
NA-2 Southern North America
SA-2 Central and South America
SA-1 Southern South America
GR-1 Greenland and Iceland
EU-1 Europe
AF-1 Northern Africa
AF-2 Southern Africa and Antarctic
a

AS-1 Southeast Asia

AS-2 Northern Asia
PO-1 Pacific Ocean
AU-1 Australia and New Zealand
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Sectional Chart Contents

 Physical Geographic Features

– Areas: Water, Cities
– Lines: Roads, Power Lines, Railroads
– Landmarks: Race Tracks, Lookout Towers
– Vertical obstructions
– Maximum Elevation by Quadrangle
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Sectional Chart Contents

 Aeronautical Features
– Airports
– Airspace Boundaries
– Radio Navigation Facilities
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Airport legend
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Airport
data
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Radio Aids
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Topographic,obstructions and miscellaneous

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Charts for instrument flight rules

(IFR)

 When an aircraft is flying under instrument flight rules (IFR), they often will
have no visual reference to the ground, and must therefore rely on internal
(e.g. GPS) or external (e.g. VOR) aids to navigation. Although in some
situations, air traffic control may issue radar vectors to direct an aircraft's
path, this is usually done to facilitate traffic flow, and will not be the sole
means of navigating to an important point, such as the position from which an
aircraft commences its approach to landing.
 Charts used for IFR flights contain an abundance of information regarding
locations of waypoints, known as "fixes", which are defined by measurements
from electronic beacons of various types, as well as the routes connecting
these waypoints. Only limited topographic information is found on IFR charts,
although the minimum safe altitudes available on the routes are shown.
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En-route chart

 En-route (or Enroute) charts provide detailed

information useful for instrument flight, including
information on radio navigation aids (navaids) such
as VORs and NDBs, navigational fixes (waypoints
and intersections), standard airways, airport
locations, minimum altitudes, and so on.
Information not directly relevant to instrument
navigation, such as visual landmarks and terrain
features, is not included.
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TERMINAL AREA CHART

 Like the VFR sectional charts that they complement, terminal
area charts depict topographic features and other information
of interest to aviators, including major landmarks, terrain
elevations, visual navigation routes, ground-based navigation
aids, airports, rivers, cities, and airspace boundaries.
 TACs are more detailed than sectional charts, and are scaled
at 1:250,000 (as opposed to 1:500,000 for sectional charts)
to permit inclusion of more detail. TACs contain information
on approach, departure, and transition rules and procedures
for the congested areas around major airports.
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Jeppesen Charts
Elrey B. Jeppesen(1907/1996), a pilot, began
recording aeronautical information in the early
1930s.
For over 70 years Jeppesen chart services have
set the standard for current, complete, reliable
flight information worldwide.
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Jeppesen Charts
It’s important to recognize that Jeppesen dose not create
aviation procedures. The charts Jeppesen creates are
graphic representations of the procedures designed by
aviation authorities in compliance with the governing
regulations . Jeppesen extracts the basic information
for the charting and Nav Data services from public
documents and disseminated by worldwide civil
aviation authorities.
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Jeppesen Charts
 All of the charts are
bound in leather binder.
Jeppesen airway
manuals divide into
different standard
manuals according to
geographical region on
the world, such as EEU
—Europe Manual, CHI—
China Manual, PBN—
Pacific Manual, etc.
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Jeppesen Charts
 Generally, the contents of Standard Jeppesen
airway manual are divided into thirteen main
sections, seperated by tabs.
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Longitude and Latitude

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How Big is One Degree?

 Degrees of Latitude are always the same

distance apart, about 60 Nautical Miles
 Degrees of longitude vary in distance – near
the poles the lengths are quite small.
– In Minnesota, a degree of longitude is about 40 to
44 Nautical Miles across
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Dividing Degrees into Smaller Units

 A ‘Minute’: 1/60th of a Degree

– roughly a mile in size
– Alternatively, a ‘Second’ is 1/60th of a minute
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Lines of latitude and longitude on sectional chart

Lat/Long on chart
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Determining Coordinates from a Chart

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Magnetic Variation
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Expressing Direction:
The Compass Rose

360
330 30
N
300 60

270 W E 90

240 120
S
210 150
180
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Magnetic Variation
PHYSICAL POLE MAGNETIC POLE

 The magnetic pole

and physical pole
are not co-located
 The difference in
heading for the two
poles is measured
and referred to as
magnetic variation
 Near the magnetic
pole the difference
can be substantial
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Magnetic Variation in the US

Easterly Variation Westerly Variation
+25º
+20º
-15º +15º
-10º -5º -0º +5º+10 º

Agonic Line
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Lines of Variation on a
Sectional Chart
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Converting True Course to

Magnetic Course

 For East Variation, subtract from True Course

True Course – Variation = Magnetic Course
 For West Variation, add to True Course
True Course + Variation = Magnetic Course
 Mnemonic: “East is least, West is best”
– “Least” should make you think of subtraction
– Rule is reversed if one wishes to convert a Magnetic
course to a True course.
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Chart Interpretation
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Railroad

Seaplane Base
Power Line

Airport
2 paved runways Maximum
Weather on 118.375MHz Elevation
Field elev. 1424
Traffic Frequency 123.0 MHz Figure
Fuel available

Vertical
Obstruction
(2549 Ft. MSL, 1192 Ft. AGL)
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Airport with Control Tower

Low Level
Military Training Route

Lookout Tower

Parachute Jump Area

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Airport
no paved runways Special Use
fuel available Airspace
Restricted Airspace

Military Airport
With Control Tower
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Class ‘B’ Airspace

Class ‘D’ Airspace

Ultralight Area
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NDB
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VOR/DME