DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

ANALOGUE – A quantity having continuous values.

e.g.- time, pressure, distance, and sound.

DIGITAL – A quantity having a discrete set of values.

BINARY – A quantity that varies in only one step, and is thus either high or

low at any time

LOGIC – A binary system where the two possible states are deemed to
represent TRUE and FALSE.

THRESHOLD – A dividing level above which a signal is considered to be high, and

below which it is considered to be low.

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 The digital advantage

 Digital data can be processed and

transmitted more efficiently and reliably
than analog data.

 Storage of digital data is easier.

 Noise does not affect digital data as much

as it does analog signals.

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 Digital waveforms

• Digital Waveforms consists of voltage levels that are changing back and
forth between the HIGH and LOW levels or states.
• A digital waveform is made up of a series of pulses, called pulse trains,
and can be classified as periodic or non-periodic.
• A periodic pulse waveform is one that repeats itself at a fixed interval,
called a period (T).
• A non-periodic pulse waveform does not repeat itself at fixed intervals
and is composed of pulses of randomly differing pulse widths.

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 DUTY CYCLE

• An important characteristics of a periodical digital

waveform is its duty cycle. The duty cycle is the ratio of
the pulse width (tw) to the period (T) and can be expressed
as a percentage.

• Duty cycle = (tw/T) 100%

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 Representing Binary states

• Binary states can be represented as high or low, true or false, ON or OFF.

Suppose that we have to decide whether or not to board a bus. This
decision
will depend on two “variables”:-
– Is it going the right way?
– Do I have enough fare?
– Do I board the bus?

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 Table With Possibilities

Logic building
A B Q
NO NO NO
NO YES NO
YES NO NO
YES YES YES

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 Building Blocks

• The three most basic of all digital

functions are called “AND”, “OR”
and “NOT”.
• The “AND” Function

Examining the simple circuIt, if we

press SW1 only, or press SW2 only,
the lamp will not light. To get the lamp
to light, we must press SW1 and SW2
together. Adopting the convention that
a pressed switch equals Logic 1, and a
lit lamp corresponds to Logic 1, then
it can be said that
SW1=1 AND SW2=1 =>
LAMP=1
Or SW1.SW2=LAMP
Where the . symbol means
“AND”.

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 • The “NOT” Function

• This is a special case, it has only one

input. Thus it has a limited action: it
could either duplicate the input
(which gives us no logical function at
all ) or it could do the opposite. A
“NOT” gate gives us the opposite
state on the output.

• The signal NOT A is written as A,

reads as A-bar, so that we can say
A=1 A=0
A=0 A=1
The “NOT” gate is often referred to as
an inverter.

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 Decision making

• Some practical type applications

of these basic logic functions,
where the result is produced (or
not produced) based upon the
presence or absence of
information at the inputs of that
circuit. Thus when it mimics the
process of humans making
decisions, then these logical
elements appear to make
decisions.

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 • The “OR” Function
• There is an another way of
connecting a lamp and two switches.

• It is evident that pressing SW1 alone

will light the lamp, regardless of the
state of SW2; likewise SW2 can cause
the lamp to light without reference to
SW1. The lamp will light if SW1 OR
SW2 is pressed. Using the same
convention,
SW1=1 OR SW2=1 =>

LAMP=1
Or SW1+SW2=LAMP
Where the + symbol indicates the
logical operation “OR”.

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 More building blocks

• NAND” gate
• If we take the output from
an “AND” function and
negate it, it becomes
“NOT AND”, usually
shortened to “NAND”. Its
truth table resembles that
for the AND function, but
is in inverted form.

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 “NOR” Function
• Inverting the OR
output of a gate, we
get “OR NOT”
combined function
known as “NOR”.

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 “EXCLUSIVE OR”
• Earlier “OR” gate had an
idea of “either”. So this is
another type of “OR” to
convey the idea of choice
(one and only one).

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 The buffer

• A buffer is an electronic
switch.
• The switch is actuated by
the input voltage Vi.
• When Vi is low, the switch
is down, and Vo is low.
• When Vi is high, the
switch moves up and Vo is
high.

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 Memory Elements

• A digital memory element is a device or a circuit that maintains a

desired logic level at its output. A switch can be used for this purpose.
• The simplest electronic circuit used as a memory element is called a
flip-flop. The flip-flop can be used to store a logic level (high or low),
and it will retain a stored level indefinitely provided the dc supply
voltage is maintained. It can store only one bit at a time.
• Register is formed by combining several flip-flops, so that group of
bits can be stored. It can also be used to shift the bits from one
position to another within the register or out of the register to another
circuit; thus these devices are known as shift registers. Shift registers
are of two types: serial and parallel.

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 Memory elements

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 Multiplexers

• Multiplex means many

into one.
• A multiplexer is a
circuit with many
inputs but only one
output.

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 De-multiplexer

• De-multiplex means one into

many.
• A de-multiplexer is a circuit
with one input but many
outputs.
• By applying control signals, the
input signals reaches at one of
the output lines.
• The circuit has 1 input signal,
m control signals, and n output
signals.

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 Application of MUX AND DEMUX

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 Counters

• Flip-flops can be connected together to perform counting

operations. Such a group of flip-flops is a counter.

• Counters are classified into two broad categories according

to the way they are clocked: asynchronous and
synchronous.

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 Timers & Encoders

• Timers are used to provide

clock signals to various digital
circuits.
• An encoder converts an active
input signal into a coded
output signal. There are n
input lines, only one of which
is active. Internal logic within
the encoder converts this
active input to a coded binary
output with m bits.

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