GEOMETRIC FEATURES

 Main aim of studying geometric features is to find a set of representative features of geometric
form to represent an object by collecting geometric features from images and learning them
using efficient methods
 Humans solve visual tasks and can give fast response to the environment by extracting
information from what they see
 Geometric feature learning methods can not only solve recognition problems but also predict
subsequent actions by analyzing a set of sequential input sensory images, usually some
extracting features of images
 Through learning, some hypothesis of next action are given and according to the probability of
each hypothesis give a most probable action
 Geometric features are features of object constructed by a set of geometric elements like points,
lines, curves or surfaces

STRAIGHTNESS
 Strain line (segment) is a line representing the shortest distance between two points A and B
 Property of a straight line is straightness. i.e., property of being straight, not being curved or
bent
 Straightness is a property of a nominally straight line
 Characterizes a line (edge, median, line on a surface) in what concerns its deviation from an
ideal straight line, but it is not sufficient to characterize a surface in global terms
 The straightness tolerance is the maximum acceptable linear dimension, t, of the tolerance
zone where the line location must be considered
FLATNESS
 Defined as minimum distance between two planes within which al the points on a surface lie
 A surface along which all the points lie along single plane is called as a perfectly flat surface
 Property of a plane is flatness. i.e., the state of flat without having pits and mounds or being
even
 Quality of having a level surface without raised areas
 The flatness tolerance references two parallel planes that define a zone, where the entire
reference surface must lie

PARALLELISM
 State of being parallel or of corresponding in some way
 Parallel lines are lines a plane which do not meet
 Two lines in a plane that do not intersect or touch each other at any point are said to be parallel
 Parallelism is primarily a property to become or to maintain the lines, not to intersect at any
point

ROUNDNESS
 Roundness is the measure of how closely the shape of an object approaches that of a
mathematically perfect circle
 Roundness applies in two dimensions, such as the cross-sectional circles along a cylindrical
object such as a shaft or a cylindrical roller for a bearing
 The analogue of roundness in three dimensions is sphericity
 Roundness is dominated by the shape’s gross feature than the definition of its edges and
corners
 A smooth ellipse can have low roundness, if its eccentricity is large
 Regular polygons increase the roundness with increasing number of sides, even though they are
still sharp edged

CIRCULARITY
 Specification of an object
 Sometimes called roundness
 Used to describe how close an object should be to a true circle
 Is a 2-D tolerance3 that controls the overall form of a circle ensuring it is not too oblong,
square, or out of round
 Roundness is independent of any datum feature
 Circularity essentially make a cross-section of a cylindrical or round feature and determines, if
the circle formed in the cross-section is round
SQUARENESS
 Is a general term to describe or define the variations in angle between two surfaces or
features oriented 90° to each other
 Is roughly equivalent to perpendicularity
 Defined for a feature (like surface/line) with reference to another feature called reference
 Defines the distance between two lines/surfaces that are parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the datum surfaces and encompass the line/surface
INTERFEROMETRY
 Consider a set of two light beams having the same amplitude, wavelength X and phase as
shown in Fig.
 These two light beams are produced by the same monochromatic source
 The result of adding or mixing these two beams together, gives a sinusoidal beam having the
same wavelength of the original two beams but is double in amplitude
 Thus by mixing of two beams having the same wavelength (or frequency) and same phase, a
resultant beam of greater brightness than either of component beams is obtained
 In fact when we mix beams having the same wavelength and same phase, we get maximum
brightness
 Fig. 8.13 shows a set of two beams having the same wavelength and same phase striking a
surface
 It is observed that the brightness of point A is greatly increased when they intersect
 The result is the opposite if two beams of light having the same amplitude and wavelength but
in antiphase (180° out of phase with each other) are mixed as shown in fig. 8.14
 In this case the resultant beam has zero amplitude
 This means complete darkness
 Fig. 8.15 shows the two beams displaced by half a wavelength i.e. antiphase or 180° out of
phase, striking a surface
 The point A is completely darkened out since the brightness is zero
 Fig. 8.16 shows a case where the two light beams are neither in phase nor in antiphase
 The resultant light beam has an amplitude which is in between the maximum brightness and
zero brightness (complete darkness)
 The brightness is, therefore, a measure of phase difference between the two light beams
 The effect is termed as interference
 It is used in a large and increasing variety of ways and has given rise to the branch of
dimension metrology called interferometry.
 It is clear from Figs. 8.12 and 8.14 that the brightness is maximum when the phase difference
between the two light beams is zero and the brightness is minimum when the phase difference
is 180°
 When the difference between the two beams is between 0° and 180°, the brightness assumes an
intermediate value gradually diminishing as the phase difference increases
 The distance between light beam 1 and light beam 2 increases as the light beam 2 is moved
from left to right
 The fact that reduction in brightness, which occurs due to phase difference between two light
beams, can be utilized as basis for measurement of displacement
 The light intensity (brightness) gradually diminishes from maximum brightness to complete
darkness as beam 2 is shifted gradually from left to right through half the wavelength
 There are two major causes of error in the method of using interferometry for length
measurements and they are :
 (a) change from maximum brightness to darkness is gradual and therefore the change is
difficult to identify
 (b) the same result occurs if the beam 2 is shifted from left to right by one half wavelength
plus any integer number of whole wavelengths
 This may cause a very serious error since the mere existence of darkness does not establish the
amount of displacement with certainty
 The darkness appears if the phase shift between the two beams is 180°, 540° or any angle
(2N-1) x 180° where N is any integer varying from 1, 2, 3……
 Thus darkness appears if the phase shift is an odd multiple of 180° or the distance travelled is
an odd multiple of λ/2.
 INTERFEROMETER
 An interferometer is a measuring instrument which makes use of interference of light waves for
its operation
 The advantages of interferometers are that their usage is easier and faster than that of optical
flats and they are most accurate measuring instruments available
 Many types of interferometers have been designed, employing slightly different methods to
accomplish the same results
 A typical interferometer, illustrating the basic principles which are employed, is shown in Fig.
8.21
 The light rays from a single colour light source are collimated into parallel rays by a lens
 When these rays reach the partially silvered surface of mirror A, about half of the light is
reflected towards mirror B, and the other half passes through the silvered surface towards the
work piece and table surface
 Thus the light rays are divided and directed along two different paths
 These divided light rays are then reflected back to mirror A
 Here some light from mirror B passes through the partially silvered surface towards the eye,
and some light from the work piece and table surfaces also is reflected towards the eye
 If the paths taken by both of these are separated and then reunited light rays become equal in
length, the light rays reinforce each other, and the work piece and table surface appear to be
ordinarily illuminated
 If, on the other hand, the path of the light reflected from work piece surface differs in length
from that of the light reflected from the work piece surface differs in length from that of the
light reflected from mirror B by one half wave length, the work piece surface zap pears to be
dark
 The surface of the table also appears to be dean if the same situation applies to it
 The darkness is caused by the two reunited light waves cancelling each other by light wave
interference
 In order that the operator can make measurements with an interferometer, the table is tilted
slightly by a very small angle
 This causes a series of interference bands to appear on the surfaces of the work piece and table,
as shown in Fig. 8.22
 Since the bands are straight, parallel, and equally spaced, both surfaces are seen to be flat
 In this example, a comparison is made between the height of the work piece and the desired
height above the table, within the range of a half wavelength
 The measurement to the nearest number of half wavelengths should be previously determined
by a less precise measurement method
 Another example is the comparison of the height of a worn gauge block with that of a master
gauge block, where both heights are already known to be within a few micron
 For this comparison, both of the gauge blocks are wrung to the table
 The error in height introduced by tilting the table is negligible, as the angle is so small
 As shown in Fig. 8.22, adjusting the cross line so that it lines up with the edge of one of the
bands makes it easier to estimate to a micron
 PROFILOMETER
 Definition

- A profilometer is a device used to measure the roughness of a surface.

- Gives difference between the high and low point of a surface in nanometres.

 Types of Profilometers

 Non - Contact Profilometers

 Contact Profilometers

Non - Contact Profilometer

Pattern Projection Methods

Fringe Projection

Fourier Profilometry and Moire

 Contact & Pseudo – Contact Profilometer
 Stylus Profilometer
 Atomic Force Microscopy
 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

Contact Profilometer
 Height from 10 nanometres to 1 millimetre

 Radius of diamond stylus from 20 nm to 25 μm

 Horizontal resolution is controlled by the scan speed and data signal sampling rate

 Advantages & Disadvantages

 Acceptance & Easy to Use

 Surface Independence

 Resolution : The stylus tip radius can be as small as 20 nanometres

 Direct Technique : No modelling required

 Not suitable for very soft (or even liquid) and easily damageable surface

 Very hard and damage surface can damage the stylus

 Only 2D
Non - Contact Profilometer

 Uses beams of light to read a surface

 They shoot a beam out and measure the time it takes to return.

 no wear since none of its parts touch anything

• Advantages of optical profilometers

 Good Resolution: Vertical resolution is usually in the nm level

 High Speed

 Reliability : cannot be damaged by surface wear or careless operators

 Spot size or lateral resolution ranges from a few micrometres down to sub micrometre

Limitations:
 Limited by very high slopes, where the light is reflected away from the objective, unless the
slope has enough texture to provide the light
 Surface Modelling is required to convert the digital code to human usable data
Working Principle of Profilometer
(Non - Contact Optical Profilometer)
A light beam is split, reflecting from reference (known/flat) & test material

Constructive and destructive interference occurs

Forms the light and dark bands known as interference fringes

The optical path differences are due to height variances in the test surface

Constructive interference areas as lighter and the destructive interference areas as darker

Light to dark fringes above represents one-half a wavelength of difference between the
reference path and the test path

Interference Image
• From the above Interference Image:

 Lower portion is out of focus means less interference

Greatest contrast means best focus

 MODES OF OPERATION
Phase Shifting Interferometry (PSI) Mode

Vertical Scanning Interferometry (VSI) Mode

 SYSTEM PERFORMANCES
Range: Highest vertical distance the profiler can measure

Resolution: Smallest distance the profiler can accurately measure

 Lateral Resolution

 Vertical Resolution

Accuracy: How closely a measured value matches the true value & can be obtained by frequent
calibration

Surface Topography: 3D representation of geometric surface irregularities

Roughness : Closely spaced irregularities

Waviness : More widely spaced irregularities

Error of Form : Long period & non cyclic deviations
Flaws : Discrete & infrequent irregularities
Roughness & Waviness comprise the Surface Texture
 AMPLITUDE PARAMETERS
Term Definition Use
Ra The roughness average (mean height) Gives roughness of the machine
surface
Rq RMS roughness Describes the finish of optical
surface
Rp & Rv Max profile peak & max profile valley Ra - info of friction & wear
depth Rv - retaining of lubricant
Rt Max height of surface Gives overall roughness of the
surface

Rz Average max height of the profile Evaluating surface texture on limited

access surfaces
Rsk Skewness - measure of asymmetry of Gives load carrying capacity,
the profile about the mean line porosity & characteristic of non-
conventional machining processes.
 PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF THE TALYSURF
SURFACE METER
 Used to measure the surface roughness by using an electronic principle
 Consist of stylus and skid type instrument used for measuring the surface of the given product
 Contains an Electronic means which is exact and high accurate than different types of surface
meter
 The measuring head consist of sharply pointed diamond stylus on it
 Has a very small radius of 0.002 mm tip and with the help of motor present in it helps to move
the skid on the surface
 The stylus point out's the profile of the surface and any deflections of a stylus is converted into
electric current to identify the measurements of the object
 Consist of stamping above the armature which consist of coils on both the sides of stamping,
this coils helps to forms an oscillator
 In this surface meter the armature present on the stamping is in fixed position
 When this fixed armature causes any vibrations of stylus it produces an air gap
 Current passing from a coil get changed
 Due to the changes in the amplitude of current the output gets demodulated due to this
discontinuous current passing during the measurement of surface, is given by an electronic
system present in it
 Form Talysurf Intra is skidless and can be used for waviness, profile and other parameters such
as Material Ratio with absolute confidence in the measurement results
 Form Talysurf Intra offers exceptional productivity for a wide range of industries and
applications
 MECHANICAL ROUGHNESS INDICATOR
 It is recent development from the tactile method
 It is suitable for non-regular surfaces where the frictional properties measured compare with
those provided by electronic stylus instrument, such as ground, honed, lapped, hand filed and
emery clothed surfaces, etc.
 On regular surfaces of rougher values, it is used as a comparator against surface roughness
blocks to decide which is rougher
 This instrument assesses the surface through its frictional properties and the average slope of
the irregularities
 It is a common experience that a thin metallic blade when pushed against a surface at a certain
angle will either slide or buckle depending on
 (a) the surface roughness, and
 (b) the angle of attack, i.e. the angle of the blade to the surface

 At angles below the critical angle the blade tip will simply slide along the surface but if the
angle is successively increased, at a certain angle the blade just begins to buckle
 This angle is the critical angle of attack
 The smoother the surface the greater the critical angle and thus this angle is a function of the
degree” of roughness encountered
 Fig. shows schematically such an indication in which the angle of attack is measured with a
gravity dial indicator which incorporates a pendulum and gear mechanism and the buckling
blade is observed through the transparent cover
 The dial is calibrated in terms of the N grades and the corresponding central Ra values
 Calibration of the instrument is against hardened carbon steel specimens having nominal values
of 0.1 and 0.4 /im Ra which are accurate to within ± 12%