Fluvial

Processes
and
Landforms
 Fluvial Processes: Driving and Resisting Forces

Driving forces:
gravity propelling
water downslope

Resisting forces:
friction within the
fluid (water), and
friction between
water and the
channel boundary
 General Flow Equation

Q = va
Area of the
cross-
Avg. velocity section
Flow rate of flow at a
(cfs) or cross-section (ft2) or (m2)
(m3/s) (ft/s) or (m/s)
Discharge equals the product of the channel width,
depth,and flow velocity

Q=WDV

W = width
D = depth
V = velocity
 Flow Hydraulics: Reynolds Number

Reynolds Number (Re): dimensionless flow

rate
(ratio of driving to resisting forces)
Re = u R
v
u = velocity
R = hydraulic radius = A/P
v = kinematic viscosity
= molecular viscosity/density

Re < 500Laminar Flow

500 < Re < 2000 Transitional Flow
Re > 2000 Turbulent Flow
 Flow Hydraulics: Froude Number

Drop a rock into a stream... does the wake travel upsteam or

downstream?

The approx. speed of low amplitude wave in shallow water is √gd

Froude Number: Fr = u / √gd

Subcritical Flow: Fr < 1 "tranquil" - waves can travel upstream

Critical Flow: Fr = 1

Supercritical Flow: Fr > 1

"rapids" - gravity waves will move downstream
surface waves are unstable and break, resulting in significant energy
dissipation. This leads to a negative feedback that tends to limit
flow to near critical.

Commonly observed that Fr approaches 1.0 at peak flows.

Resistance to Flow

97% of a river's energy is dissipated by friction

-- 3% left for sediment transport.

Internal Flow Resistance

Viscosity: resistance of a fluid to change in shape:
water - low viscosity / molasses - high viscosity
Molecular (dynamic) viscosity: internal friction from molecular collisions

Laminar Flow: flow as thin thin coherent layers - rare in channels

Turbulent Flow: velocity fluctuates in all directions causing additional

energy loss - most streamflow is turbulent.
 Velocity Distribution in a Channel

Depth-averaged
velocity is above
the bed at about
0.4 times the
depth
Velocity Distribution in a Channel
Faster at middle
& surface

Fastest at surface
Roughness:
Manning’s Equation

1.49 2 3 1 2
v R S
n
v is the flow velocity (ft/s)
n is known as Manning’s n and is a
coefficient of roughness
R is the hydraulic radius (a/P) where
P is the wetted perimeter (ft)
R ≈ mean flow depth (D)
S is the channel bed slope
1.49 is a unit conversion factor. (Use
1 if using metric units).
 Manning’s n Roughness Coefficient

Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum

Clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools 0.025 0.03 0.033
Clean, winding, some pools, shoals, weeds & stones 0.033 0.045 0.05
Same as above, lower stages and more stones  0.045 0.05 0.06
Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.05 0.07 0.07
Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways 0.075 0.1 0.15
Bottom:  gravels, cobbles, and few boulders 0.03 0.04 0.05
Bottom:  cobbles with large boulders 0.04 0.05 0.07
 Variability in River Systems

Four dimensions:
– Longitudinal
– Lateral
– Vertical
– Time

The four dimensions of a stream

system
bank
 Bankfull Discharge

Typically bankfull discharge equates to a

roughly 2-year recurrence interval flow.
Discharge increases downstream but how do W, D,
and V adjust to the increasing discharge?

Q=WDV

W = width
D = depth
V = velocity
Which flows faster (in general), small
headwater rivers or large valley rivers?  
River velocity tends to increase downstream!

This was only recognized in the early 1950s…  

 Hydraulic Geometry

The way in which water velocity, depth and width increase

with a rise in water discharge

– Expressed as power functions of discharge

w  aQ b

d  cQ f
v  kQ m

– Since w•d•v = Q, the sum of both the exponents b, f

and m and intercept values a, c and k are equal to 1.
Hydraulic Geometry

• Headwater streams move

slowest

• Mouth of stream moves

fastest

• Deeper streams move

faster than shallow
streams -- less resistance
from the stream bed

• Channel width tends to

increase as Q0.5
Erosion and Transport
Erosion and Transport
 Erosion and Transport

Suspended Load Bedload

 Carrying the Load

• The material transported by a river is called its load.

• There are three basic classes of load

– Bed load: sediment rolling, bouncing, and creeping along

the river bed

– Suspended load: sediment that is fine enough to remain in

suspension in stream (size depends on velocity and
turbulence)

– Dissolved load: the invisible load of dissolved ions (e.g. Ca,

Mg, K, HCO3)
Sediment Load
 Bed Load
• The bed load generally constitutes between 5 and 20
percent of the total load of a stream.
• Particles move discontinuously by rolling or sliding at a
slower velocity than the stream water.
• The bed load may move short distances by saltation
(series of short intermittent jumps).
 Suspended Load

• Particles tend to remain in suspension when upward-

moving currents exceed the velocity at which particles
of silt and clay settle toward the bed under the pull of
gravity.

• They settle and are deposited where velocity

decreases, such as in a lake or in the oceans.
 Suspended Load

Tributaries can have different sediment loads

 Dissolved Load

• All stream water contains dissolved ions (cations and anions)

• The bulk of the dissolved content of most rivers consists of

seven ionic species:
– Bicarbonate (HCO3-)
– Calcium (Ca++)
– Sulfate (SO4--)
– Chloride (Cl-)
– Sodium (Na+)
– Magnesium (Mg++)
– Potassium (K+)
– Dissolved silica as Si(OH)4
 Sediment Size 

• Boulders > 256 mm

• Cobbles 80 mm - 256 mm

• Gravel 2 mm - 80 mm

• Sand 0.05 mm - 2 mm

• Silt 0.002 mm - 0.05 mm

• Clay <0.002 mm
Colorado River, Water Year 1948
Bed Scour During Floods
 Boundary Shear Stress

The force exerted on a stream bed by

flowing water provides the energy for
sediment transport.

Boundary shear stress (b) = force due to

weight of water

b = W sin = g D sin

 Shields Relation for Bedload Transport

Shields (1936) determined that the critical shear stress (c)

necessary to mobilize a particle from hydraulically rough stream
beds is given by

c = * (swg d

where d is the particle diameter and * = 0.06 for turbulent flow.

This suggests that larger particles are harder to move from stream
beds, but for mobility of a bed of mixed grain size the appropriate
diameter to use is the median grain size, d50, because big grains
are more exposed to flow, whereas small grains hide behind big
ones
 Sediment Transport Rates

Sediment transport rates = f ( b - c )

Meyer-Peter and Müller equation (1948) is an

empiricism based on data from Swiss streams

Qb = k ( b - c )1.5

where Qb = bed load transport rate and k =

0.253 for SI units
 Stream Power

The power of a river or stream is characterized by the

product of its discharge and slope

 = g Q S

The power per unit area of a riverbed is called the unit

stream power by the product of its discharge and slope

 = g Q S / W

The ability of a river to cut down into bedrock is generally

taken to be a function of its stream power (or unit stream
power).
 Dominant Discharge

The dominant discharge is the flood that does the most

geomorphological work

Large floods - have most potential to erode and transport

Medium sized floods occur more frequently do more

geomorphological work in the long-term

Small floods - cannot mobilize coarse sediment

Conventional wisdom holds that most sediment transport by

floods corresponding to the bankfull discharge.
 Dominant Discharge

Loramie Creek, Ohio

A: sediment function (x 20) C: geomorphic work B: days

50000 250

Effective Discharge
sediment discharge (tons x 10)

40000 200
geomorphic work

B: Days Occurring C: Geomorphic Work

days of occurrence
30000 150

20000 100
A: Sediment Transport Rate

10000 50

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
discharge rate
Bedrock vs. Alluvial Channels

Bedrock: sediment supply < transport

capacity
Alluvial: sediment supply ≥ transport
capacity

Long time (>103 yr):

mountain channels = bedrock
floodplain channels = alluvial.

Shorter time (<103 yr):

material on bed surface defines bedrock
vs. alluvial.
Bedrock Rivers

• Fixed channel
boundaries (bedrock
banks and bed)

• High transport capacity

• Low Storage

• Input ≈ Output
Bedrock Channels

Channels floored by
bedrock and lacking an
alluvial bed cover.

Indicative of transport
capacity well in excess
of sediment supply.
Bedrock Channels

Channels floored by
bedrock and lacking an
alluvial bed cover.

Indicative of transport
capacity well in excess
of sediment supply.

Mosaic Canyon
Confluence of the Colorado and Green Rivers
Green River Canyon
Entrenched river meander, San Juan River, Utah
Alluvial Rivers

• Erodible channel
boundaries (alluvial
banks and bed)

• Transport Capacity ≤
Sediment Supply

• Storage can be quite

high

• Input ≥ Output
Channel Patterns

Three basic map-

pattern forms of
streams:

• Straight
• Meandering
• Braided /
Anasomosing
Channel Patterns
Straight Channels

Straight channels
are rare.

Straight channels
form where streams
are confined by
topography or follow
geologic structures.

Generally mountains
streams.
 Channel Pattern: 
Straight and Meandering
Meandering Channels
Meandering Channels

Loops or meanders form

as stream erodes its banks.

Erosion takes place on the

cut bank, which is the
outside loop of the
meander.

Deposition takes place on

the point bar, which is on
the inside loop of the
meander.
Meandering Channels

Change their channel

course gradually

Create floodplains
wider than the channel
– Very Fertile soil
– Subjected to
seasonal flooding
 Meandering streams often characterized by large
loopy bends across their floodplains.

Meanders occur most commonly in channels that lie in fine-

grained stream sediments and have gentle gradients.
Meandering (DuNoir Creek, WY)

Thalweg
Point Bar

Cutbank
Streams generally erode on outer (cut) banks where
velocity is greatest, and deposit on the inner sides of
bends where velocity is slower.

Meanders tend to grow as the flow erodes the banks,

favoring development of meandering channels.
 Helical Flow Through Meanders

Surface flow on outside of meander bend is forced into the bank

and thus down, causing scour and excavating a pool

Flow returns along bottom of meander bend, causing net

depostion of and creation of a point bar deposit.
Formation of Meanders
Point bar Cut bank
Pools and Riffles
 Pools and Riffles

Riffle to riffle = 5 - 7 channel widths

One meander length is equal to 10-14 Bankfull Widths
Meander Length vs Channel Width
Flow Through Meanders and Formation Point
Bar Deposits
Channel Migration
Lateral Erosion
 Note old meanders

Owens River, CA Sacramento River, CA

Meander “train” = belt of meandering

Meander belt
Meander belt

Channel migration zone = area across

which the river is prone to move.
Streamway / Channel Migration Zone Concept
Channel Migration Zone

518
’

1997
1980

1966
1951
1989

Salt Creek
Vinton County, Ohio
Holden Crater, Mars
 Sinuosity: Gradient and substrate

• Big meanders • Small meanders

– low gradient – high gradient
– fine substrates – coarse substrates
Braided Channels
Braided Channels

Many converging and

diverging streams
separated by gravel bars
(or sand bars).

Braided channels clog

themselves with sediment,
so channels always shifting

Generally in streams near

mountain fronts
Braided Channels

• High sediment load

• Constantly changing course

• Floodplain completely
occupied by channels

• Many small islands called

mid-channel bars

• Usually coarse sand and

gravel deposits.
Braided Channels

If a stream is unable to move

all the available load, it tends
to deposit the coarsest
sediment as a bar that locally
divides the flow--making a
braid.

Braided channels tends to

form in streams having highly
variable discharge, easily
erodible banks, and/or a high
sediment load.

Kyrgyzstan
Braided channel, Kyrgyzstan
Braided Channels

Glacial streams generally

are braided because:

– The discharge varies

both daily and
seasonally.

– The glacier supplies

the stream with large
quantities of sediment.
Braided Channels
Meandering vs. Braided Channels

Meandering favored by:

Low slope (< 2%)
Low sediment load
Cohesive banks

Braiding favored by:

High slope
High sediment load
High discharge variability
Erodible (non-cohesive) banks
Channel Classification: Montgomery and Buffington
Channel Classification: Montgomery and Buffington
Colluvial Channels

Small headwater
channels at the tips of
the channel network
where sediment
transport is dominated
by hilllope processes.
Colluvial Channels

Small headwater
channels at the tips of
the channel network
where sediment
transport is dominated
by hilllope processes.
Cascade Channels

The steepest of
mountain channels,
characterized by
tumbling flow around
individual boulders;
disorganized
streambed structure.
Cascade Channels
Step-Pool Channels

Channels displaying full- pools

width-spanning
accumulations of coarse
sediment that forms a
sequence of steps. steps
Step-Pool Channels

Channels displaying full-

width-spanning
accumulations of coarse
sediment that forms a
sequence of steps.
Step-Pool Channels
Plane-Bed Channels

Channels lacking well-

defined bedforms and
instead displaying long
reaches lacking pools.
Plane-Bed Channels

Channels lacking well-

defined bedforms and
instead displaying long
reaches lacking pools.
Plane-Bed Channels
Plane-Bed Channels
Pool-Riffle Channels

The most common

mountain river
morphology; pools
characterized by
alternating sequence of
pools and bars. bars
Pool-Riffle Channels
Bedrock Channels

Bedrock channels with

little sediment storage
on bed can occur
anywhere in a river
network where transport
capacity >> sediment
supply.
Bedrock Channels
Channel Classification: Montgomery and Buffington
Channel Classification: Montgomery and Buffington
Channel Classification: Rosgen
Channel Classification: Rosgen
Channel Classification: Rosgen
Floodplains
The floodplain is river at high flow.
A floodplain is the flat land immediately surrounding a
stream channel and submerged at times of high flow.
Aggradation occurs when deposition is
greater than erosion.

Aggradation of the Rivière des Ha! Ha! in Quebec

Incision occurs when erosion is greater
than deposition.

Broadstreet Hollow Stream, NY

 Floodplains can form either by deposition of overbank suspended
sediment or by deposition of bedload as the channel migrates across
its valley.

Overbank (suspended load) deposition Bedload deposition

 Levees

The boundary between channel and floodplain may be the

site of a natural levee (a broad, low ridge of alluvium built
along the side of a channel by debris-laden floodwater).

Levees form when

debris-laden
floodwater overflows
the channel and
slows as it moves
onto the floodplain.
Floodplain Formation by Suspended Load Deposition
 Levee Deposits

Coarser
Flood stage sediment

Finer sediment Finer sediment

The area adjacent to and outside of the channel serves as an

overflow area for excess water and sediment
Floodplain Construction by Bedload Deposition

Point 
bar 
deposits
Deposition of Point Bar Deposits
 Deposition of Point Bar Deposits

Point bar deposit grows laterally through time

Floodplain Development
Floodplain Landforms

Figure 16-32
Floodplain landforms
 Oxbow lake
A crescent-shaped lake formed in an abandoned river
bend which has become separated from the main stream
by a change in the course of the river. 
Oxbow channels
Old channels abandoned as a river meanders
across its floodplain form oxbows.

Oxbow lake
Oxbow Formation
Oxbow lake near the Chippewa River, Eau Claire, Wisconsin
 Splay
A deposit of coarse material resulting from a levee breach
during a flood.
 Meander Scroll Bars
A meander scroll consists of long, curving, parallel ridges
(scrolls) that during stages of high water have been
aggraded against the inner bank of the meandering
channel, while the opposite bank experienced erosion.
Side looking radar (SLAR) image of floodplain of an
Amazon River tributary; flow is toward lower right.
 Natural levee

A bank confining a stream channel or limiting areas

subject to flooding.
 Backswamp
A low area of swampy ground beyond a river’s natural
levees.
General controls on
channel morphology

Straight channels typically

steep, low-sediment supply

Braided channels typically high

sediment supply

Meandering channels typically

low to medium slope and
moderate sediment supply

Anastamosed channels typically

low sediment supply
Lane’s Balance

Qs*d50 ~ Qw*S

Qs = sediment discharge (kg/s)

Qw = water discharge (cm/s)
d50 = sediment size (m)
S = slope (m/m)
Adjustments in the Fluvial System
 River Management 
‘Hard engineering’
– Traditionally management strategies - civil engineers
– Many dramatic failures
• revetments and bridges collapse
• return to natural dimensions after straightening and widening
e.g. River Mississippi
• habitat loss and local extinctions

‘Soft engineering’
– Working with rather than against natural processes
– Geomorphologists have greater role