Nervous System:

Neurons and Synapse

Fajar Prasetya
Fakultas Farmasi
Universitas Mulawarman
The nervous system has two major anatomical
subdivisions
• The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord,
which are enclosed and protected by the cranium and vertebral column

The skull is composed of both the facial bones and

the cranium. The cranium is the top part of your skull: the
frontal bone, parietal bones, temporal, and occipital bone. They
have a similarity in their function, in that they protect the head.
But they protect different parts of the head
 The nervous system has two major
anatomical subdivisions (cont.)
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is all nerves leading to rest of
body, consists of all the rest; it is composed of nerves and ganglia.
• A nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers (axons) wrapped in fibrous connective tissue.
Nerves emerge from the CNS through foramina of the skull and vertebral column
and carry signals to and from other organs of the body.
• A ganglion (plural, ganglia) is a knot-like swelling in a nerve where the cell bodies
of peripheral neurons are concentrated.

Ganglia are part of peripheral nervous system. They work

as relay station for nerve signals. One nerve enters and
another nerve exits from each ganglion (singular: ganglion
plural: ganglia).

A foramen (pl. foramina) is an opening that

allows the passage of structures from one
region to another
• Neurons, like other cells, have a cell body (called the soma). The nucleus of the neuron is found in the soma.
Neurons need to produce a lot of proteins, and most neuronal proteins are synthesized in the soma as well.
• Dendrites are the segments of the neuron that receive stimulation in order for the cell to become active. They
conduct electrical messages to the neuron cell body for the cell to function
• The long, thin structure in which action potentials are generated; the transmitting part of the neuron. After
initiation, action potentials travel down axons to cause release of neurotransmitter
• Action potential – Brief electrical event typically generated in the axon that signals the neuron as 'active'. An
action potential travels the length of the axon and causes release of neurotransmitter into the synapse. The
action potential and consequent transmitter release allow the neuron to communicate with other neurons.
• Myelin = surrounds the axon to speed up the signal
• Synaptic Terminal = end of the neuron
• Synapse = gap/space between neurons
How……???
• Communication between Neurons?

• The “signal” sent through a neuron?

 Communication between Neurons

• The neurotransmitters will diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptors on the
next neuron (postsynaptic neuron).
• This triggers a Na+ chemical gated channel to open on the postsynaptic neuron,
triggering an action potential in that neuron.
How neurotransmitter is released at synapse?
• How do the neurotransmitter molecules get out of these
synaptic vesicles in the axon terminal to cross synaptic cleft
and bind to their receptors?
• Voltage gated calcium channel that play a role in neurotransmitter release  when
the action potential comes down to axon and reaches the axon terminal, the action
potential will change the membrane potential at the axon terminal and it will open
these voltage gated calcium channels
The “signal” sent through a neuron?
• The “signal” sent through a neuron is an electrical signal

• Dendrites  cell body  Axon  Synaptic Terminals

• Based on the movement of ions into and out of the cell
• Causes changes in the ‘+’ and ‘–’ charges inside the cell
Bioelectricity
• Luigi Galvani (9 September 1737 – 4 December 1798) was
an Italian physician, physicist, biologist and philosopher,
who discovered animal electricity

• He is recognized as the pioneer of bioelectromagnetics. In

1780, he discovered that the muscles of dead frogs' legs
twitched when struck by an electrical spark
• Electricity is the flow of electrons through a conductive path
like a wire. This path is called a circuit
• Batteries have three parts, an anode (-), a cathode (+), and
the electrolyte. The cathode and anode (the positive and
negative sides at either end of a traditional battery) are
connected up to an electrical circuit
• The electrons wants to rearrange themselves to get rid of this
difference. But they do this in a certain way. Electrons repel
each other and try to go to a place with fewer electrons
• In a battery, the only place to go is to the cathode. But, the
electrolyte keeps the electrons from going straight from the
anode to the cathode within the battery. When a wire connects
the cathode and the anode) the electrons will be able to get to
the cathode. In the picture, the electrons go through the wire,
lighting the light bulb along the way. This is one way of
describing how electrical potential causes electrons to flow
through the circuit.
• Today, we know that the frog's leg kicks because neurons (nerve cells) carry
information via electrical signals.
• How do neurons in a living organism produce electrical signals? At a basic
level, neurons generate electrical signals through brief, controlled changes in
the permeability of their cell membrane to particular ions (such as Na+ and
K+).
• This electrical potential difference is called the membrane potential
• Because there is a potential difference across the cell membrane, the
membrane is said to be polarized.
• If the membrane potential becomes more positive than it is at the resting
potential, the membrane is said to be depolarized.
• If the membrane potential becomes more negative than it is at the resting
potential, the membrane is said to be hyperpolarized.
 Sending a Signal: Action Potential

• Na+ channels are embedded in the membrane of the neuron

• Usually, these Na+ channels are closed, but can be triggered to open when the
correct stimulus is received
• Voltage gated channels = open in response to a particular change in voltage (charge)
• Chemical gated channels = open in response to a chemical binding to them
Action Potential
• STEP 1: To start an action potential, some kind of stimulus (light, pressure,
chemical, etc.) causes Na+ channels in the dendrite to open.
• This causes Na+ to flood into the neuron from outside 
DEPOLARIZATION
Action Potential
• STEP 2: The change in voltage triggers the next Na+ channel (voltage gated
channel) to open.
• STEP 3: As Na+ diffuses down the neuron, it continues to trigger voltage
gated Na+ channels to open.
• This is what sends a signal down the neuron towards the axon terminal.
Action Potential
• STEP 4: Na+ voltage gated channels only open temporarily. After a short
period of time, they close, and an inactivation gate opens to prevent them from
opening again for a little while  REFRACTORY PERIOD

refractory definition: not affected by a treatment, change, or process

Action Potential
• STEP 5: The neuron is “reset”
(REPOLARIZED) by the opening of
voltage gated K+ channels.
• K+ flows OUT of the neuron, making the
inside more negative again.
• Why does K+ flow out?
• Higher K+ concentrations inside neuron
• The Na+/K+ pump also helps reestablish
resting potential.
Thank You