Group behaviour,

Leadership, and Conflict

management

BY: Deepali Mandalia

Definition of a Group

A collection of individuals, the

members accept a common
task, become interdependent
in their performance, and
interact with one another to
promote its accomplishment
Harold H. Kelley
and J.W. Thibaut
Why Do People Join Groups?
• Security – By joining a group, individuals can reduce the
insecurity of “standing along.” People feel stronger, have fewer
self-doubts, and are more resistant in threats when they are part
of a group.
• Status – Inclusion in a group that is viewed as important by
others provides recognition and status for its members.
• Self-esteem – Groups can fulfill social needs. People enjoy the
regular interaction that comes with group membership. For many,
the on-the-job interactions are their primary source of fulfilling
their needs for affiliation.
• Power – There is strength in numbers. What cannot be achieved
individually often becomes possible through group action.
• Goal achievement – There are times when it takes more than
one person to accomplish a particular task – there is a need to
pool talents, knowledge, or power in order to complete a job.
 Various Types of Groups

Formal groups Informal Groups  Small groups

 Large groups
 Primary groups
 Command  Friendship  Secondary groups
groups groups  Coalitions
 Task groups  Interest groups  Membership groups
 Reference groups
 Formal Groups

 These groups are formed by the organization to

carry out specific tasks.
 It includes two types:
Command group
Task groups
Formal Groups cont’d…

Command Group:
 Represented in the organization chart.
 Permanent in nature.
 Members report to common supervisors.
 Functional reporting relationship exists.

Task groups:
 Formed to carry out specific tasks.
 Temporary in nature.
Informal Groups
 Informal groups are formed by the employees
themselves. Hence they are not formally
structured.
They are of two types:
 Friendship groups
 Interest groups
 Other types Include

Small groups:
 Only a few members.
 Face-to-face
interaction and better
communication is
possible.
Large groups:
 Members is very
high.
 Personal interaction
is not possible.
Primary group:
It is made up of members who have similar and
loyalties and has a feeling of friendship towards
each other.
Secondary groups:
They share same values and beliefs, but because
of the size of the group, they do not interact often
with each other
Coalitions:
They are created by members for a specific
purposed and do not have a formal structure.
Membership groups:
 They are the groups to which individual actually
belongs.
Reference groups:
 It is actually the groups to which an individual
would like to belong.
Stages of Group Development
 Group Structure

 It helps shape the behavior of its members,

predict the behavior and guide the performance of
the group as a whole.
 Formal leadership

 Leader’s behavior has a significant impact on

the group behavior and performance
 Style of a leader is imitated by the members of
the group.
Roles

 Set of behavior pattern which an individual

occupying a certain position in society is
expected to display.
 Dimensions of role are:
 Role Identity
Role perception
Role Expectations
Role Conflict
 Norms

Acceptable standards of behaviour within a group

that are shared by the group’s members.

 Norms pertaining to performance related process

 Appearance norms
 Norms pertaining to informal social arrangements
 Norms that regulate the allocation of resources
 Status

A socially defined position or rank given to groups or

group members by others.
Example : a cabin of one’s own an air conditioner etc
Size of a Group

 Groups of 5-7 members exercise the best

elements of both small and large groups.
 Social Loafing - The tendency for individuals to
expend less effort when working collectively than
when working individually.
Group Cohesiveness

• Group Cohesiveness
– The degree to which members are attracted to a
group and share the group’s goals.
The Relationship Between
Cohesiveness and Productivity
Usefulness of group in organization

• Organizational task accomplishment

– Problem of social loafing
• Group and individual behaviour
Group Decision Making
Group Decision Making

Managers use groups to make decisions for the following

reasons.
• Synergy: Synergy is a positive force in groups that occurs
when group members stimulate new solutions to problems
through the process of mutual influence and encouragement
in the group.
• Commitment: Another reason for using a group is to gain
commitment to a decision.
• Knowledge and Experience: Groups also bring more
knowledge and experience to the problem-solving situation.
Approaches to group decision
making

• Autocratic decision making

• Expert member soliciting
• Consultative decision making
• Minority control
• Majority control
• Consensus
Consideration in group decision
making
• Time
• Member competence
• Autonomy and self-direction
• Availability of information
• Group size
• Degree of participation
Advantages of Group Decision
Making
• Compared with individual decision-making, group decision
making has several advantages. They are:
• More knowledge and information through the pooling of
group member resources;
• Increased acceptance of, and commitment to, the decision,
because the members had a voice in it;
• Greater understanding of the decision, because members
were involved in the various stages of the decision process;
• An increased number of alternatives can be developed;
• Members develop knowledge and skills for future use.
Disadvantages of Group
Decision Making

• Pressure within the group to conform and fit in;

• Domination of the group by one forceful member or a
dominant clique, who may ramrod (ramifications) the
decision;
• It is usually more time consuming, because a group is
slower than an individual to make a decision;
• Disagreements may delay decisions and cause hard
feelings;
• Group think may cause members to overemphasize gaining
agreement.
 Shaping Individuals Into Team
Players

 Selection:
Good interpersonal skills
 Training:
Can be trained by specialists
 Rewards:
Financial or non financial rewards
Managing team issues

• Performance
• TQM
• Diversity
• Reinvigorating
• Team norms
• Team roles
• Team cohesiveness
Performance

• Managers expect performance to improve

suddenly once the teams are constituted.
This expectation is not realistic. It often takes
years for teams to show results.
 Teams and Total Quality
Management
 TQM means process improvement and employee
involvement is the key to process improvement. Team
offers highly motivated and committed workforce to
implement the principles of TQM.
Teams and Workforce Diversity

Diversified teams provide unique and

innovative solutions, but at the same time,
they are cohesive.
 Teams and Workforce Diversity

Disadvantages
Advantages
Ambiguity
 Multiple perspectives
Complexity
 Greater openness to Confusion
new ideas interpretations
 Multiple interpretations Miscommunication
Increased creativity Difficulty in reaching a
 Increased problem single agreement
actions solving skills Difficulty in agreeing on
specific
Reinvigorating

• Reinvigorating mature teams: as years go performance of

teams tends to slacken. Mature teams are plagued by
groupthink, conflict, stagnancy, and complacency. They
need to be reinvigorated.

• Managers need to support mature teams with advice,

guidance, and training so that mature teams can continue to
improve.
Team norms

• Team norms are rules or standards of behavior that apply to

members. They help clarify membership expectations in a
team.

• Norms allow members to structure their own behavior and to

predict what others will do; they help members gain a
common sense of direction; and they reinforce a desired
team or organizational culture.
Team roles

• Role refers to a set of expectations for the behavior of a

person holding a particular office or position. Often those
expectations are ambiguous leading to anxieties. This is
likely to occur particularly in newly formed teams.
Team cohesiveness

• Cohesiveness refers to the degree to which members are

attracted to and motivated to remain in a team.

• Cohesive teams carry with them functional consequences.

Such team-members focus on team’s performance, are
more energetic, absent themselves less, stay with the
teams, and entertain high self-esteem.
 Team Effectiveness
• Providing a supportive environments
• Relevant skills and role clarity
• Specifying clear and realistic performance goals
.
• Focus on super-ordiante goals.
• Size of work teams
• Abilities of member
• Strong commitment to a common purpose
 Cont’d…
• Good leadership and effective structure
• Preventing social loafing and determining
accountability
• Proper evaluation and reward systems (Team
rewards)
• Generating mutual trust among team members
Dealing with Criticism

 Understand the Reason behind

 Empathy
 Don’t personalize criticism
 Do not be Judgmental
 Do not overload
Management of dysfunctional
groups

• Dysfunctional people create dysfunctional

situations. Ways to manage dysfunctional team:
– Understand team members' motives and motivations
– Define roles and responsibilities
– Set measurable team objectives
– Provide a forum for regular feedback
– Set and enforce consequences
– Practice random acts of kindness
– Honest management, fair evaluation and open
communication.
Organizational politics
Organizational Politics

• Politics relates to the ways people gain and use

power in organisations. Individuals, departments
and coalitions in an organisation engage in political
activity to enhance their power.
Essence of politics

• Disagreement,
• Diversity,
• Scarcity,
• Interest, and
• others
Type of political activity
Ethics of power and politics

• Organizational politics have functional as well as

dysfunctional consequences. Good or bad, political
activities in organizations are inevitable and managers
should manage them carefully.

• It must satisfy three criteria:

– Criterion of utilitarian outcomes
– Criterion of individual rights
– Criterion of distributive justice
 The Ethics of Behaving Politically
Question 1: Is the political action motivated by self serving interests to the
exclusion of the organization’s goals?

No Yes

Unethical

Question 2: Does the

political action respect the
rights of the individuals
affected?
Yes Question 3: Is the political
No activity fair and equitable?
No Yes
Unethical
Unethical Ethical
Leadership
 What is leadership?

Leading people
Influencing people

Commanding people

Guiding people
Definitions

• Leadership is an attempt at influencing the activities of

followers through the communication process and toward
the attainment of some goal or goals.

• Leadership is an influence process that enable managers to

get their people to do willingly what must be done, do well
what ought to be done.(Cribbin, J.J. ‘Leadership: strategies
for organizational effectiveness’)

• Leadership is defined as the process of influencing the

activities of an organized group toward goal
achievement.(Rauch & Behling.)
Nature of Leadership

• Leadership refers to the ability of one individual to

influence others.
• The influence is exercised to change the behaviour of
others
• Behaviour is changed through non-coercive means.
• Change of behaviour is caused with an objective of
achieving a shared goal.
• The person influencing others (leader) possesses a set
of qualities or characteristics which he or she uses to
influence others.
• Leadership is a group phenomenon. It involves
interaction between two or more people.
Importance of leadership

• Initiates action- Leader is a person who starts the work by

communicating the policies and plans to the subordinates from where
the work actually starts.
• Motivation- A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the
concern’s working. He motivates the employees with economic and
non-economic rewards and thereby gets the work from the
subordinates.
• Providing guidance- A leader has to not only supervise but also play
a guiding role for the subordinates. Guidance here means instructing
the subordinates the way they have to perform their work effectively
and efficiently.
• Creating confidence- Confidence is an important factor which can be
achieved through expressing the work efforts to the subordinates,
explaining them clearly their role and giving them guidelines to achieve
the goals effectively. It is also important to hear the employees with
regards to their complaints and problems.
Cont’d…

• Building morale- Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees

towards their work and getting them into confidence and winning their trust.
A leader can be a morale booster by achieving full co-operation so that they
perform with best of their abilities as they work to achieve goals.
• Builds work environment- Management is getting things done from
people. An efficient work environment helps in sound and stable growth.
Therefore, human relations should be kept into mind by a leader. He should
have personal contacts with employees and should listen to their problems
and solve them. He should treat employees on humanitarian terms.
• Co-ordination- Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal
interests with organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved
through proper and effective co-ordination which should be primary motive
of a leader.
Leadership style & their
implications
• Styles based on authority retained
– Authoritarian style
– Participative style (consultative, consensual, democratic)
– Free-rein style
• Styles based on task vs. People emphasis
– High task and low relationship
– High task and high relationship
– High relationship and low task
– Low relationship and low task
Cont’d…

• Styles based on assumptions about people

– Theory X leader (Autocratic)
– Theory Y leader (Participative)
• Likert’s four styles
– Exploitative authoritarian
– Benevolant authoritarian
– Consultative
– Participative
• Enterpreneurial leadership style
Leadership theories

• This theorist defined the style of leadership as contingent

to the situation, which is sometimes, classified as
contingency theory.

• Four contingency leadership theories appear more

prominently in the recent years: Fiedler contingency
model, Vroom-Yetton decision model, The path-goal
theory, and The Hersey-Blanchard situational theory.
Fielder’s Contingency Model

• The Fiedler contingency model bases the leader’s

effectiveness on what Fred Fiedler called situational
contingency.

• This results from the interaction of leadership style and

situational favorableness (later called "situational control").

• The theory defined two types of leader: those who tend to

accomplish the task by developing good-relationships with
the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as
their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-
oriented).
• According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader.

• Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be

effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation.

• When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly

structured task, and high leader position power, the situation
is considered a "favorable situation".

• Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in

extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas
relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with
intermediate favorability.
Situational contingency theory

• Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip Yetton (1973)

and later with Arthur Jago (1988), developed a
taxonomy for describing leadership situations,
taxonomy that was used in a normative decision model
where leadership styles where connected to situational
variables, defining which approach was more suitable to
which situation.

• This approach was novel because it supported the idea

that the same manager could rely on different group
decision making approaches depending on the
attributes of each situation.
Path-goal theory

• The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by

Robert House (1971) and was based on the expectancy
theory of Victor Vroom.
• According to House, the essence of the theory is "the
meta proposition that leaders, to be effective, engage in
behaviors that complement subordinates' environments
and abilities in a manner that compensates for
deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate
satisfaction and individual and work unit performance.
• The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-
oriented, directive, participative, and supportive; those
are contingent to the environment factors and follower
characteristics.
• In contrast to the Fiedler contingency model, the path-
goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are
fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four
depending on what the situation demands.

• The path-goal model can be classified both as a

contingency theory, as it depends on the
circumstances, but also as a transactional leadership
theory, as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity
behavior between the leader and the followers.
The Hersey-Blanchard situational
theory

• Hersey and Blanchard suggest four leadership-styles

and four levels of follower-development.
• For effectiveness, the model posits that the leadership-
style must match the appropriate level of follower ship-
development.
• In this model, leadership behavior becomes a function
not only of the characteristics of the leader, but of the
characteristics of followers as well.
Leadership Effectiveness

Forces that influence the style to be used included-

• How much time is available. •Are relationships based on
respect and trust or on disrespect?
• Who has the information - one, ones employees, or both?
• How well ones employees are trained and how well one
knows the task.
• Internal conflicts.
• Stress levels.
• Type of task. Is it structured, unstructured, complicated, or
simple?
Successful Traits of Leaders

– A strong desire for accomplishment

– Persistent pursuit of goals
– Creativity and intelligence used to solve problems
– Initiative applied to social situations
– Self-assumed personality
– Willingness to accept behavioural consequences
– Low susceptibility to interpersonal stress
– High tolerance of ambiguity
– Ability to influence other people
– Ability to structure social interactions
Conflict Management
Conflict

• Definition
– It is a process that begins when one party perceives
that another party has negatively affected, or is about
to negatively affect, something that the first party
cares about.
• Is that point in an ongoing activity when an interaction
“crosses over” to become an interparty conflict.
– Encompasses a wide range of conflicts that people
experience in organizations
• Incompatibility of goals
• Differences over interpretations of facts
• Disagreements based on behavioral expectations
Transitions in Conflict Thought

Traditional View of Conflict

The belief that all conflict is harmful and must be
avoided.

Causes:
• Poor communication
• Lack of openness
• Failure to respond to
employee needs
Transitions in Conflict Thought
(cont’d)
Human Relations View of Conflict
The belief that conflict is a natural and inevitable
outcome in any group.

Interactionist View of Conflict

The belief that conflict is not only
a positive force in a group but that
it is absolutely necessary for a
group to perform effectively.
Functional versus Dysfunctional
Conflict
Functional Conflict
Conflict that supports the goals
of the group and improves its
performance.

Dysfunctional Conflict
Conflict that hinders
group performance.
Types of Conflict

Task Conflict
Conflicts over content and
goals of the work.

Relationship Conflict
Conflict based on
interpersonal relationships.

Process Conflict
Conflict over how work gets done.
Conflict-Intensity Continuum
(Level)
The Conflict Process
Stage I: Potential Opposition or
Incompatibility

• Communication
– Semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and “noise”
• Structure
– Size and specialization of jobs
– Jurisdictional clarity/ambiguity
– Member/goal incompatibility
– Leadership styles (close or participative)
– Reward systems (win-lose)
– Dependence/interdependence of groups
• Personal Variables
– Differing individual value systems
– Personality types
Stage II: Cognition and
Personalization
Perceived Conflict
Awareness by one or more
parties of the existence of
conditions that create
opportunities for conflict to
arise.
Conflict Definition
Negative Emotions
Felt Conflict
Emotional involvement in a
conflict creating anxiety,
tenseness, frustration, or
hostility.
Positive Feelings
Stage III: Intentions

Intentions
Decisions to act in a given way.

Cooperativeness:
• Attempting to satisfy the other party’s concerns.
Assertiveness:
• Attempting to satisfy one’s own concerns.
Dimensions of Conflict-Handling
Intentions

Source: K. Thomas, “Conflict and Negotiation Processes in Organizations,” in M.D. Dunnette and L.M.
Hough (eds.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2nd ed., vol. 3 (Palo Alto, CA:
Consulting Psychologists Press, 1992), p. 668. With permission.
Stage III: Intentions (cont’d)

Competing
A desire to satisfy one’s interests, regardless of the
impact on the other party to the conflict.

Collaborating
A situation in which the parties to a conflict each
desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties.

Avoiding
The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict.
Stage III: Intentions (cont’d)

Accommodating
The willingness of one party in a conflict to place the
opponent’s interests above his or her own.

Compromising
A situation in which each party to a conflict is
willing to give up something.
Stage IV: Behavior

Conflict Management
The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to
achieve the desired level of conflict.
Conflict-Intensity Continuum

Source: Based on S.P. Robbins, Managing Organizational Conflict: A Nontraditional Approach (Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974), pp. 93–97; and F. Glasi, “The Process of Conflict Escalation and the
Roles of Third Parties,” in G.B.J. Bomers and R. Peterson (eds.), Conflict Management and Industrial
Relations (Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff, 1982), pp. 119–40.
Conflict Management Techniques

Conflict Resolution Techniques

• Problem solving
• Superordinate goals
• Expansion of resources
• Avoidance
• Smoothing
• Compromise
• Authoritative command
• Altering the human variable
Source: Based on S. P. Robbins,
Managing Organizational Conflict: A
Nontraditional Approach (Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974),

• Altering the structural variables pp. 59–89

Conflict Management Techniques

Conflict Resolution Techniques

• Communication
• Bringing in outsiders
• Restructuring the organization
• Appointing a devil’s advocate

Source: Based on S. P. Robbins, Managing Organizational Conflict: A Nontraditional Approach

(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974), pp. 59–89
Stage V: Outcomes

• Functional Outcomes from Conflict

– Increased group performance
– Improved quality of decisions
– Stimulation of creativity and innovation
– Encouragement of interest and curiosity
– Provision of a medium for problem-solving
– Creation of an environment for self-evaluation and change

• Creating Functional Conflict

– Reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders.
Resolution of conflict
Conflict-Handling Intention:
Competition

• When quick, decisive action is vital (in

emergencies); on important issues.
• Where unpopular actions need implementing (in
cost cutting, enforcing unpopular rules,
discipline).
• On issues vital to the organization’s welfare.
• When you know you’re right.
• Against people who take advantage of
noncompetitive behavior.
Conflict-Handling Intention:
Collaboration

• To find an integrative solution when both sets of

concerns are too important to be compromised.
• When your objective is to learn.
• To merge insights from people with different
perspectives.
• To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into
a consensus.
• To work through feelings that have interfered with a
relationship.
Conflict-Handling Intention:
Avoidance
• When an issue is trivial, or more important issues are
pressing.
• When you perceive no chance of satisfying your concerns.
• When potential disruption outweighs the benefits of
resolution.
• To let people cool down and regain perspective.
• When gathering information supersedes immediate
decision.
• When others can resolve the conflict effectively
• When issues seem tangential or symptomatic of other
issues.
Conflict-Handling Intention:
Accommodation

• When you find you’re wrong and to allow a better

position to be heard.
• To learn, and to show your reasonableness.
• When issues are more important to others than to
yourself and to satisfy others and maintain cooperation.
• To build social credits for later issues.
• To minimize loss when outmatched and losing.
• When harmony and stability are especially important.
• To allow employees to develop by learning from
mistakes.
Conflict-Handling Intention:
Compromise

• When goals are important but not worth the effort of

potential disruption of more assertive approaches.
• When opponents with equal power are committed to
mutually exclusive goals.
• To achieve temporary settlements to complex
issues.
• To arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure.
• As a backup when collaboration or competition is
unsuccessful.