IC ENGINES

20 MARKS
POWER CYCLES – CARNOT CYCLE
 NOTE – Before studying these cycles
students should know basic working
of IC Engine. Students should know
compression, heat addition, expansion
& heat rejection processes occurring
in IC engines.
IC ENGINE NOMENCLATURE
ENGINE TERMINOLOGY

 1. Cylinder Bore – The nominal inner diameter

of cylinder is called as cylinder bore. Usually
denoted by ‘d’.
 2. Stroke – The nominal distance through
working piston moves between two successive
reversals of it’s direction of motion is called as
stroke. It is denoted by ‘L’.
 3. Top Dead Centre (TDC) – The position of
piston farthest from the crank shaft is called
as TDC. (In horizontal engines it is IDC).
CONT…
 4. Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) – The position of
piston closest to the crank shaft is called as
BDC. (In horizontal engines it is ODC).
 5. Displacement or Swept Volume – The
nominal volume swept by the working piston
when it travels from one dead center to other
dead center is called as swept volume. It is
expressed in ‘cc’ (cubic centimeter). It is
calculated using formula
𝜋 2
 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑑 𝐿
4
CONT….
 6. Clearance Volume – Nominal volume of the
combustion chamber above the piston when the
piston is at TDC. It is expressed in ‘cc’ (cubic
centimeter). It is denoted by ‘Vc’.
 7. Total Cylinder Volume – It is summation of
swept volume & clearance volume. It is
expressed as
 V = Vs + Vc
 8. Compression ratio - It is ratio of total cylinder
volume to the clearance volume.
 It is denoted by ‘r’.
𝑽 𝑽𝒄 + 𝑽𝒔
𝒓 = =
𝑽𝒄 𝑽𝒄
WORKING OF 4 STROKE PETROL ENGINE
 It works on Otto cycle.
 It requires four strokes of the piston to
complete one working cycle of operation in
the engine cylinder.
 The crank rotates nearly by 180o during
each stroke & hence for one power stroke
crank rotates by 720o.
 The four strokes of a petrol engine are
described below.
CONT…
 Suction stroke – During this the
piston moves from TDC to BDC.
 The inlet valve is open.

 The air & fuel (petrol here) mixture

enters the cylinder during this.
 The crank rotates nearly by 180o.
 Compression stroke - During this the
piston moves from BDC to TDC. The
crank rotates nearly by 180o.
 The air – fuel (petrol) mixture is
compressed by piston.
 As a result pressure & temperature of
mixture increases.
 The spark is produced when piston
reaches to TDC.
 Both valves are closed during this stroke.
CONT….
 Expansion stroke (Power Stroke) -
During this working stroke both the
valves are closed and piston moves from
TDC to BDC.
 Just before the piston reaches TDC
(during compression stroke), the charge is
ignited with the help of a spark plug.
 It suddenly increases the pressure and
temperature of the products of combustion
but the volume, practically, remains
constant.
CONT…
 Due to the increase in pressure, the piston
is pushed down with a large force.
 The hot burnt gases expand as piston
moves down
 During this expansion, partial amount of
heat is converted to work in the form of
rotation of crank.
CONT…
 Exhaust Stroke - During this stroke, the
exhaust valve is open & Intake valve is
closed.Piston moves from BDC to TDC
 The piston pushes out the products of
combustion, from the engine cylinder through
the exhaust valve into the atmosphere.
 This completes the cycle, and the engine
cylinder is ready to take the charge again
there by opening intake valve when piston
reached TDC.
WORKING OF 4S PETROL ENGINE
WORKING OF 4-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
 These engines operate at higher compression
ratio than in Petrol engines.
 Hence pressure & temperature at the end of
compression are sufficient to self ignite the
mixture of air & fuel (diesel here).
 Due to higher pressures diesel engines are
sturdy then petrol engines. The four strokes
are
CONT..
 Suction stroke – During this the piston
moves from TDC to BDC.
 The inlet valve is open.

 The air (only) enters the cylinder during this.

The crank rotates nearly by 180o.
 Compression stroke - During this the piston
moves from BDC to TDC.
 The crank rotates nearly by 180o.

 The air is compressed by piston.

 As a result pressure & temperature of air
increases.
 The fuel (diesel) is injected when piston
reaches to TDC.
 Both inlet & exhaust valves are closed
during this stroke.
 Expansion stroke (Power Stroke) -
During this working stroke both the
valves are closed and piston moves from
TDC. to BDC
CONT…
 Shortly before the piston reaches TDC. (during
compression stroke), the fuel is injected with
the help of a fuel injector & pump.
 The rate of injection is such that combustion
maintains pressure constant.
 Heat is added at constant pressure.

 After injection is completed (cut-off takes

place) the products of combustion expand.
CONT…
 Exhaust stroke - In this stroke, the exhaust
valve is open as piston moves from BDC to TDC.
 This movement of the piston pushes out the
products of combustion, from the engine cylinder
and is exhausted through the exhaust valve into
the atmosphere.
 This completes the cycle, and the engine cylinder
is ready to suck the air again.
2 STROKE ENGINE WORKING
CARNOT CYCLE
 This cycle cannot be possible in practice,
because all processes are ideal processes.
 However we assume that the processes
(SUCTION, COMPRESSION…..) in IC
Engine are occurring in this manner (as
proposed by CARNOT).
 Then we can get maximum possible
efficiency of the IC engine.
CARNOT CYCLE ON PV & TS DIAGRAMS
 PROCESSES
 Process 1-2 Reversible Isothermal heat
rejection
 Process 2-3 Reversible Adiabatic Compression
Process.
 Process 3-4 Reversible Isothermal Heat
addition Process.
 Process 4-1 Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
Process.
EFFICIENCY OF CARNOT CYCLE
 The efficiency of carnot cycle - is given by formula

𝑇𝐻 −𝑇𝐿 𝑊
 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = =
𝑇𝐻 𝑄𝑆
 “Remember Thermal Efficiency is ratio of
Work Output (W) to the heat supplied (Qs).”
 Example - A heat engine / IC engine is working
between 600 oC (temperature at which heat is
supplied) & 100 oC (temperature at which heat is
rejected). Find thermal efficiency assuming it
working on Carnot Cycle.
OTTO CYCLE (CONSTANT VOLUME CYCLE)
 Now we will consider our IC Engine is
working on OTTO cycle. Again P-v &T-s
diagrams are important in this cycle.
 The Otto cycle is the idealized cycle for
the spark-ignition internal combustion
engines.
 The Otto cycle 1-2-3-4 consists of following
four process.
PROCESSES IN OTTO CYCLE
 Process 1-2: Reversible Adiabatic Compression
of air.

 Process 2-3: Heat Addition at Constant Volume.

 Process 3-4: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion of

Air.

 Process 4-1: Heat Rejection at Constant Volume

OTTO CYCLE ON PV & TS DIAGRAMS
EFFICIENCY OF OTTO CYCLE
 The efficiency of Otto cycle is also called as Air
Standard Efficiency or Thermal Efficiency.
It is given by
𝑊 𝑄𝑆 −𝑄𝑅
 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = =
𝑄𝑆 𝑄𝑆
eqn 1
 Heat Rejected = QR = m Cv (T4 – T1)
 Heat Supplied = QS = m Cv (T3 – T2)

 Putting this in Eqn.1

CONT…

𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 =
m Cv T3 – T2 −m Cv(T4 – T1 )
m Cv(T3 – T2 )

T3 – T2 −(T4 – T1 )
 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 =
(T3 – T2 )

T4 – T1
 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 1−
T3 – T2
CONT….
T
T4 1 – 1ൗT4
 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 1− T eqn 2
T3 1 – 2ൗT3

𝑇2 𝑉1 𝛾−1
 For process 1-2 = eqn. 3
𝑇1 𝑉2

𝑇3 𝑉1 𝛾−1
 For Process 3-4 = eqn. 4
𝑇4 𝑉2
CONT….
 Hence from Eqn. 3 & Eqn. 4 we can write

𝑇2 𝑇3
 =
𝑇1 𝑇4
𝑇2 𝑇1
 Re arranging = eqn. 5
𝑇3 𝑇4
 Putting eqn. 5 in Eqn. 2 we get
T4
 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 1−
T3
CONT….
1
 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 1− T3 eqn.
T4
6
 But we also know from eqn. 3
𝑇3 𝑉1 𝛾−1
 =
𝑇4 𝑉2

 Hence Eqn. 6 becomes

1
 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 1− 𝑉1 𝛾−1
𝑉2
CONT….
 Let us define new term
𝑽𝟏
 Compression ratio = r =
𝑽𝟐
 Then
𝟏
𝜼𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏−
𝒓𝜸−𝟏
SIGNIFICANCE OF COMPRESSION RATIO
 From the above equation, it can be
observed that the efficiency of the Otto
cycle is mainly the function of compression
ratio (for the given ratio of Cp and Cv i. e.
𝜸).
 As compression ratio increases Efficiency
increases
 The compression ratio at which detonation
just occurs is known as the Highest Useful
Compression Ratio.
CONT…
 Ifwe plot the variations of the thermal
efficiency with increase in compression
ratio for different gases, beyond certain
values of compression ratios, the increase in
the thermal efficiency is very small.
 However, practically the compression ratio
of petrol engines is restricted to maximum
of 9 or 10 due to the phenomenon of
knocking at high compression ratios.
OTTO CYCLE EFFICIENCY VS COMPRESSION RATIO
 NOTE – In these cycles we assume that Air is
working substance. Actually IC Engine in
your bike has air + petrol as a working
substance. But these cycles assume that only
air is used in IC engine. Therefore these
cycle are also called as AIR STANDARD
CYCLES.
DIESEL CYCLE (CONSTANT PRESSURE CYCLE)
 Diesel cycle is a idealized cycle for diesel engines.
PROCESSES IN DIESEL CYCLE
 Process 1-2: Reversible Adiabatic Compression.

 Process 2-3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition.

 Process 3-5: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion.

 Process 4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection.

EFFICIENCY OF DIESEL ENGINE
 Thermal efficiency / Air standard
efficiency of diesel cycle is

1 ργ −1
 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 1−
r𝛾−1 γ ρ−1

𝑽𝟏
 Compression ratio = r =
𝑽𝟐
𝑽𝟑
 Cut-off ratio = ρ =
𝑽𝟐
CUT OFF RATIO
 Ratio of volume at the end of heat supplied to
be volume before heat supplied is called as cut
of ratio.
𝑽𝟑
 Cut-off ratio = ρ =
𝑽𝟐
 Significance of cut-off ratio – The fuel injection
is cut-off at point ‘3’ in the cycle.
 However combustion still continues even after
this point.
 Normally it is expressed as % of stroke volume
of cylinder. It is maximum for maximum power
output.
CONT….
 From the above equation, it is observed
that, the thermal efficiency of the diesel
engine can be increased by increasing the
compression ratio, r, by decreasing the
cut-off ratio, σ, or by using a gas with
large value of γ.
 Diesel engines have higher compression
ratios than petrol engine.
DUAL CYCLE (LIMITED PRESSURE CYCLE)
 Here the heat addition occurs partly at
constant volume and partly at constant
pressure.
 This cycle is a closer approximation to the
behavior of the actual Otto and Diesel engines
because in the actual engines, the combustion
process does not occur exactly at constant
volume or at constant pressure but occurs as
in the dual cycle.
DUAL CYCLE ON PV & TS DIAGRAMS
PROCESSES IN DUAL CYCLE
 Process 1-2: Reversible Adiabatic Compression.

 Process 2-3: Constant Volume Heat Addition.

 Process 3-4: Constant Pressure Heat Addition.

 Process 4-5: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion.

 Process 5-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection.

EFFICIENCY OF DUAL CYCLE
1 rp rγ −1
 𝜂𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 1−
r𝛾−1 rp −1 +rp γ r−1

 Where
𝑽𝟏
 Compression ratio = r =
𝑽𝟐

𝑽𝟑
 Cut-off ratio = ρ =
𝑽𝟐

𝑷𝟑
 Pressure ratio = rp =
𝑷𝟐
BRAYTON CYCLE
 Ideal Brayton cycle describes working of Gas
Turbine. The various processes are
 1-2 - Isentropic Compression Process -
Ambient air is drawn into the compressor,
where it is pressurized.
 2-3 - Isobaric Heat Addition Process - The
compressed air then runs through a
combustion chamber, where fuel is
burned, heating that air - a constant-
pressure process, since the chamber is
open to flow in and out.
CONT…
 3-4 - Isentropic Expansion Process - The
heated, pressurized air then gives up its
energy, expanding through a turbine (or
series of turbines). Some of the work
extracted by the turbine is used to drive
the compressor.
 4-1 – Isobaric Heat Rejection Process - In
the atmosphere.
BRAYTON CYCLE ON PV & TS DIAGRAMS
CLASSIFICATION OF IC ENGINES
 A. Number of strokes –
1. Two stroke engines
2. Four stroke engines
 B. Thermodynamic cycle / Cycle of Operation

1. Otto cycle / Constant volume heat addition

2. Diesel cycle / Constant pressure heat addition
 C. Method of fuel supplied / mixture preparatn

1. Carburetor Engines
2. Injection type Engines
CONT…
 D. Method of Ignition -
1. Spark Ignition (SI) Engines
2. Compression Ignition (CI) Engines
 E. Method of Cooling

1. Air Cooled Engines

2. Water cooled Engines
 F. Method of charging

1. Naturally Aspirated Engines

2. Supercharged Engines
CONT…
 G. Arrangement of cylinders
1. Inline cylinder Engines
2. Opposed piston Engines
3. Opposed cylinder Engines
4. V-type Engines
5. Radial Engines
 H. Method of Governing

1. Quantity Governing
2. Quality Governing
3. Hit & Miss Governing
CONT…
 I.Method of Lubrication
1. Splash Lubrication
2. Pressure Lubrication
 J. Fuel used
1. Gasoline
2. Diesel
3. LPG
 K. Application
1. Automobile
2. Locomotive
3. Marine
4. Aircraft
 Four Stroke Engines Two Stroke Engines
One power stroke per One power stroke per one
two revolutions of revolution of crankshaft
crankshaft or 4 or 2 strokes of piston.
strokes of piston

Power produced by Power produced by same

same size engine less size engine more than
than 2stroke. OR 4stroke. OR engine will
engine will be heavier be smaller / lighter for
/ sturdier for same same power
power
It has inlet & exhaust It has inlet & exhaust
valves and valve ports.
operating mechanism.
More components; so Lesser components; so
lesser mechanical better mechanical
efficiency efficiency

Cyclic fluctuations Cyclic fluctuations lesser

more (Non uniform (More uniform turning
turning moment moment diagram); so
diagram); so flywheel flywheel weight required
weight required is is less.
more.
Lesser cooling & Greater cooling &
lubrication lubrication requirements.
requirements. Less More wear & tear.
wear & tear.
Volumetric efficiency Volumetric efficiency is
is more due to more low due to lower time for
time for induction induction

Thermal efficiency is Thermal efficiency is

more; part load poor; part load efficiency
efficiency more poor

Use – cars, buses, Use – scooters, Mopeds,

trucks, tractors, hand sprayers, motor
power generation, cycles etc.
industrial engines,
aero planes etc.
 Petrol (SI) Engines Diesel (CI) Engines

Works on OTTO cycle Works on DIESEL cycle /

/ constant volume constant pressure cycle
cycle

Fuel – gasoline; highly Fuel – diesel; non

volatile; low self volatile; high self
ignition temperature ignition temperature

Lower weight due to Heavier due to more

lower peak pressures peak pressures
Gaseous mixture of Only air is introduced
air & fuel is during suction stroke.
introduced during Fuel is injected at the
suction stroke end of compression

Ignition system Ignition system not

required with spark required. Self ignition of
plug. fuel takes place due to
high temperature.

Throttle control air & Only fuel quantity

fuel mixture quantity. regulated & air is not
controlled.
Compression ratio – 6 Compression ratio – 16
to 10. Upper limit is to 20. Upper limit is
fixed by knocking. fixed by weight increase.

Higher speeds – due Lower speeds – due to

to low weight & more weight &
homogeneous heterogeneous
combustion combustion.
Thermal efficiency Thermal efficiency more
lower due to lower due to more
Compression ratio Compression ratio
VALVE TIMING DIAGRAMS
 Valve Timing Diagrams – These diagrams
give idea about exact timings of opening and
closing of inlet and exhaust valves as well as
spark timing with respect to crank angle.
 Remember this valve opening & closings
takes place once in 720 o of crank rotation
in 4 stroke (petrol & diesel) engines where
as in 360 o of crank rotation in 2 stroke
(petrol & diesel) engines.
VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM FOR 4-STROKE PETROL ENGINE
 1. Intake valve opens (around 10o) before
piston reaches TDC. This is to ensure that
valve is fully open when piston reaches TDC &
admission of starts immediately & fully.
 2. Intake valve closes (around 10o) after
piston reaches BDC & starts moving up again
for compression stroke.
 This is to admit more charge as inertia of
moving air helps charge to continue to enter
combustion chamber.
 Also due to delayed closing, pressure in the
cylinder will be positive i.e. above atmospheric.
 3. Exhaust valve opens (around 25 o) before
piston reaches BDC during expansion stroke.
 This reduces some work done on expelling out
burnt gases.
 Because this scavenging of gases becomes easy
due to higher pressure at this point.
 4. Exhaust valve closing is delayed (around
5 o) after piston reaches TDC during exhaust
stroke.
 The inertia of exhaust gases helps to scavenge
the cylinder better. This improves volumetric
efficiency also. The period during which both
valves are open is called as overlap period.
CONT…
 5. Spark is produced (around 20 to 40 o)
before piston reaches TDC during the
compression stroke.
 This takes care of ignition lag.

 The preparation phase for fuel to start burning,

also called as angle of advance or ignition
advance.
 FOR 4-S PETROL ENGINE
SLOW SPEED HIGH SPEED
4-S DIESEL ENGINES
 1. Fuel valve opens (around 5-12o)
before piston reaches TDC during
compression.
 This is for better evaporation & mixing
of fuel & air.
 There is always lag between supply of
fuel & ignition.
4 S DIESEL ENGINE
CONT….
 2. Observe overlapping in diesel engines
(around 40o) is more than petrol engines
(around 12o).
 In petrol engine if overlap is more petrol
may pass out with exhaust gases & this
can be uneconomical.
 In diesel engines only air is admitted
during suction. So no such danger. Rather
is helps scavenging.
TURNING MOMENT DIAGRAM
 It is the diagram plotted with turning moment
on the Y-axis and angle of rotation of crank for
one cycle on the X-axis.
 1. Since the pressure inside the engine cylinder
is less than the atmospheric pressure during
the suction stroke, therefore a negative loop is
formed as shown in Figure.
 2. During the compression stroke, the work is
done on the gases, therefore a again negative
loop is obtained.
CONT…
 3. During the expansion or working stroke, the
fuel burns and the gases expand, therefore a
large positive loop is obtained.
 In this stroke, the work is done by the gases.

 4. During exhaust stroke, the work is done on

the gases, therefore a negative loop is formed.
 It may be noted that the effect of the inertia
forces on the piston is taken into account in
Figure.
TURNIMG MOMENT DIAGRAM - 4S ENGINE
COMBUSTION IN SI ENGINES
 Mainly there are three stages of
combustion in SI Engines. They are
I. Ignition Lag

II. Propagation of Flame

III. Afterburning

 In the figure A is passage of spark around

20 o before TDC. B is point where pressure
rise is observed (8 o before TDC). C is
point where peak pressure is attained.
COMBUSTION IN SI ENGINES
CONT….
 Ignition Lag (A – B) – Also called preparation
phase.
 During this self propagating nucleus of flame
takes place.
 This is a chemical process.

 This ignition lag depends on factors like –

pressure & temperature during the process,
nature of fuel, exhaust gas remains within the
combustion chamber.
CONT…
 Propagation of Flame (B – C) – The physical
process.
 Flame spreads thr’out the combustion
chamber. The starting point B is point where
first measurable rise in pressure is observed.
 Also B is point where combustion curve departs
from motoring curve.
 The flame propagates at constant velocity.

 The rate of pressure rise is proportional to rate

of heat release. The rate of heat release
depends on turbulence intensity and mixture
composition.
CONT…
 Afterburning (C – D) – The process starts
at a point C where pressure in combustion
chamber is at peak.
 The flame velocity decreases during this
stage & hence rate of combustion also
becomes low.
 Since expansion stroke starts before point
C there is no pressure rise during this
stage.
COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES
 Combustion in CI engines takes place in
four stages. They are
I. Ignition Delay Period
II. Period of UnControlled Combustion

III. Period of controlled Combustion

IV. Period of After burning

COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES
I. IGNITION DELAY PERIOD –
 Preparatory phase. Counted from the start of
injection to the point where pressure time
curve separates from motoring curve.
 It comprises of Physical delay & Chemical
delay. During physical delay fuel is atomized,
vaporized, mixed with air & it’s temperature is
raised to self ignition temperature.
 During chemical delay reactions start slowly &
then accelerate slowly until ignition takes
place.
II. PERIOD OF RAPID COMBUSTION
 Uncontrolled combustion. Pressure rise is
rapid during this.
 It is counted from end of delay period to the
point of maximum pressure in combustion
chamber.
 Fuel is accumulated during delay period.
 During stage I all fuel droplets are well spread
& sufficient air is available around all fuel
droplets to burn.
 The rate of heat release is maximum during
this period.
 III. Period of controlled combustion – The
temperature & pressure is increased during
stage II.
 Hence fuel injected during stage II burns with
less ignition delay as soon as it finds oxygen.
 The period of controlled combustion ends at
maximum cycle temperature.
 IV. Period of afterburning – Though
injection is cutoff combustion does not ceases.
 The unburnt & partially burnt fuel particles
remained in the combustion chamber start
burning as soon as they get oxygen.
 Usually this stage corresponds to 70 – 80 o from
the piston travel from TDC.
SCAVENGING –
 The process of clearing the cylinder after the
expansion stroke is called as scavenging.
 It is process of replacing combustion products
in the cylinder with the help of fresh charge.
 This phenomenon is more important in two
stroke engines where no separate stroke is
dedicated for this.
 There are three types of scavenging.
CONT…
1. Cross flow scavenging
 In this method, the transfer port (or inlet port
for the engine cylinder) and exhaust port are
situated on the opposite sides of the engine
cylinder (as is done in case of two-stroke cycle
engines).
 The piston crown is designed into a
particular shape, so that the fresh charge
moves upwards and pushes out the burnt
gases in the form of cross flow
CONT…
2. Backflow or loop scavenging:
 In this method, the inlet and outlet ports are
situated on the same side of the engine
cylinder.
 The fresh charge, while entering into the
engine cylinder, forms a loop and pushes out
the burnt gases as shown in figure.
CONT…
3. Uniflow scavenging:
 In this method, the fresh charge, while entering
from one side (or sometimes two sides) of the
engine cylinder pushes out the gases through the
exit valve situated on the top of the cylinder.
 In uniflow scavenging, both the fresh charge and
burnt gases move in the same upward direction
as shown in figure.
 SCAVENGING METHODS
CROSS LOOP UNIFLOW
PREIGNITION

 The premature combustion that starts before

application of spark is called as pre-ignition.
 REASONS

 1. Exhaust valve or spark plug electrode in

combustion chamber has very high
temperature (around 700 oC).
 2. Csarbon particles formed due to incomplete
combustion deposit on the combustion chamber
walls and have very high temperature.
EFFECTS OF PREIGNITION
 1. Power output reduced as piston has to do
more work during compression stroke.
 2. Tendency of detonation increases.

 3. The effect of pre-ignition is more undesirable

in multi cylinder engines. Especially when one
or more cylinder experiences pre-ignition
whereas other are producing power normally.
Normal cylinders drag other cylinders in this
case. This increases heat generation & results
piston seizure.
CONT…
 Loads on crank shaft during this are higher; may
cause crank failure.
DETONATION / KNOCKING IN SI ENGINES
 Also called as abnormal combustion.
 In normal combustion the flame front
propagates in normal manner from spark plug
to other end of combustion chamber & burns
all the charge. (see figure ).
 In abnormal combustion as flame front move
ahead the heat released during the combustion
increases the pressure & temperature of burnt
charge.
NORMAL COMBUSTION
ABNORMAL COMBUSTION
CONT…
 This in turn increase pressure & temperature
of unburnt charge.
 Thus temperature of unburnt charge increase
beyond the self ignition temperature of charge.
 If this remains high for the time required for
pre flame reactions, spontaneous ignition occur
as many pin-point locations (before flame
reaches).
CONT…
 This releases large amount of heat &
pressure in this region becomes too high.
 This pressure is 3 times higher than
normal combustion pressure
 This generates pressure waves which
strike on the walls of combustion chamber
producing knocking or pinking sound.
 This phenomenon is called as Knocking.
EFFECTS OF KNOCKING
 1. Engine parts are subjected to heavy pressure
waves which may cause heavy damage to piston
& connected components. The auto-ignition
pressure may reach 200 bar & frequency of
vibration may be 4000 to 5000 C.P.S.
 2. Heavy vibrations & Undesirable noise.

 3. Auto-ignition may overheat spark plug. It

may cause pre-ignition in the successive cycle.
 4. More heat is lost to coolant as dissipation
rate is rapid.
REASONS OF DETONATION
 1. Self ignition temperature of fuel must be
high sufficiently.
 2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have less
tendency to knock.
 3. Higher initial temperature of charge causes
more knocking.
 4. Spark plug must be located to reduce length
of travel of flame to reduce detonation chances.
 5. Richer Mixture Less Detonation
CONT…
 6. Engine speed if increased, increases flame
speed & it reduces detonation chances.
 7. Size of engine cylinder must be smaller
possible.
 8. Cooling water temperature if increases,
detonation chances increases.
 9. High Octane rating fuels reduces
detonation.
 10.More ignition delay period more detonation.
CONT…
 Compression ratio
 Retard spark timing to control detonation.
SUPERCHARGING-
 It is process of increasing density of air
supplied to the combustion chamber. This
makes available more oxygen & more complete
burning thereby producing more power output.
 Objective –

 1. To reduce mass of the engine per brake

power (important in aircraft engines).
 2. To maintain power of aircraft engines where
less oxygen is available for combustion i.e at
high altitudes.
CONT….
 3. To reduce space occupied by the engine
(important in marine engines).
 4. To increase the power output of an engine in
certain applications (e.g. racing cars and other
engines).
 40 % rise in power
EFFECTS OF SUPERCHARGING
 Increase in volumetric efficiency
 Mechanical efficiency in more (though gas load
increase (& hence frictional losses also) , bmep also
increases)
 The specific fuel consumption is more at part
loads.(at part loads o/p of SC is not fully utilized.
Also in SI engine richer mixture needed to avoid
detonation)
 Chances of detonation increases
 Better acceleration
 Better mixing of air & fuel
 Improved cold starting
 Increases gas loading & thermal stresses.
 Increased cooling requirements of piston & valves
TURBO CHARGING
 The process in which supercharger is being driven by a
gas turbine which uses the energy of exhaust gases.
 During turbo charging the exhaust gases from
exhaust manifold of engine enters a gas turbine.
 It is coupled to a rotary compressor.

 The compressor takes air from the atmosphere &

compresses it to send to inlet manifold of engine.
SC VS TC
 The key difference between a turbocharger and
a supercharger is its power supply.
Something has to supply the power to run the
air compressor. In a supercharger, there is
a belt that connects directly to the engine. It
gets its power the same way that the water
pump or alternator does.
 A turbocharger, on the other hand, gets its
power from the exhaust stream. The exhaust
runs through a turbine, which in turn spins
the compressor
CONT….
 There are tradeoffs in both systems. In theory, a
turbocharger is more efficient because it is using
the "wasted" energy in the exhaust stream for its
power source.
 On the other hand, a turbocharger causes some
amount of back pressure in the exhaust system
and tends to provide less boost until the engine is
running at higher RPMs.
 Superchargers are easier to install but tend to be
more expensive
CONT….
 Another important difference between the
two is that since the supercharger is
driven directly by the engine through
belts, the response of the same is pretty
instantaneous and a sudden increase in
power is observed
AIR FUEL REQUIREMENTS
 Chrmically correct ratio – stoichiometric A:F
ratio
 Less than stoichio. – rich
 More than stoichio. –lean
 In SI engine for combustion to occur – this
range is narrow
 Outside the range flame propagation will not
sustain.
 Useful range for SI – 9:1 to 19:1
 Best Power 12:1
 Best Economy 16:1
CONT…
 Carburettor shall satisfy varying engine
demands
 1. Idling & low loads – amount of air
admitted less due to small opening of throttle.
 Pressures in inlet manifold, CC, exhaust pipes
low
 As intake valve opens exhaust gases flow back
to inlet manifold.
 As piston moves down both comes in - dilution
of charge.
 To increase probability of contact of air & fuel
RICH mixture needed.
CONT…
 2. Cruising Speed – (20 t0 75 % of rated power)
 Chances of dilution less

 Best economy mixture (16:1)

 3. Maximum Power Range – (75% to 100 % of

rated power) –
 Economy setting transferred to maximum power
setting (near best power setting 12:1)
 Enriching mixture reduces flame temperature, &
cylinder temperature, reduces cooling problem &
reduces chances of damaging exhaust valves,
Detonation tendency is reduced due to rich
mixture
CONT…
 Excessively rich and excessively lean mixtures
both decrease temperatures and combustion
speed.
 Excess fuel, as in rich mixture, cools the engine
somewhat, but the effect of unburned fuel as a
coolant is generally overrated.
 The cooling is mainly due to other effects, like
lower combustion speed.
TRANSIENT REQUIREMENTS
 1. Starting & Warm up – engine temp low,
most heavy end (HC with high BP) do not
vaporize. Some evaporated fuel re-condense when
come in contact with cylinder walls.
So evaporated A/F mixture is too lean to burn.
Hence very rich mixture ( 5 to 10 time richer than
normal amount)needed so sufficient light end are
available ( HC having low BP)
Volatility of fuel important
CONT…
 2. Acceleration Requirements – Sudden
opening of throttle.
 Evaporated fuel moves much faster in manifold
than liquid film formed on induction system
walls.
 Liquid droplets lags behind during accen. And
cylinder receives leaner mixture.
 Since accen. Needs more fuel, more fuel must be
supplied.
 Accen pump is required for this.
MPFI
 M.P.F.I. means Multi Point Fuel Injection
system.
 In this system each cylinder has number
of injectors to supply/spray fuel in the cylinders
as compared to one injector located centrally to
supply/spray fuel in case of single point injection
system
CONT..

 The ‘Fuel Injectors’ are precision built

‘Solenoid Valves’, something like Washing
Machine Water inlet Valves.
 These have either single or multiple ‘Orifices’
which ‘spray’ fuel into the Fuel inlet manifold
of a Cylinder upon actuation, from a common
Rail/Header pressurized to around 3 bar, fed
by a high pressure electrically drive fuel pump
inside the Petrol tank of the Car.
CONT…
 The ‘on-board’ ECU primarily controls the
Ignition Timing and quantity of fuel to be
injected.
 ECU in turn is controlled by the ‘data input’ from
a set of ‘SENSORS’ located all over the Engine
and its Auxiliaries. These detect the various
‘operating states’ of the Engine and the
performance desired out of it. Such Sensors
constantly monitor :
VARIOUS SENSORS IN MPFI
 1)Air flow meter – measures air volume or
mass in intake manifold to adjust fuel
supply
 2) Engine Temperature – Measures coolant
temperatures & makes mixture rich during
cold starting
 3) Exhaust gas or oxygen sensor – Senses
amount of oxygen in exhaust & calculates
air fuel ratio
 4) Air Inlet Temperature sensor – Checks
temperature of ambient air entering
engine & finely tunes mixture strength.
 5) Throttle Position Sensor – senses
position of throttle so that mixture flow
can be adjusted for engine speed &
acceleration
 6) Manifold Pressure Sensor – Monitors
inlet manifold vacuum & adjusts mixture
strength as per changes in engine load.
 7) Knock Sensor – Microphone sensor that
senses knock sound & ignition timing is
retarded.
 8) Camshaft Position sensor – Senses
rotation of engine camshaft / crankshaft
for speed and time of injection.
ADVANTAGES OF MPFI
 More uniform A/F mixture will be
supplied to each cylinder, hence the
difference in power developed in each
cylinder is minimum.
 No need to crank the engine twice or
thrice in case of cold starting as happens
in the carburetor system.
 Immediate response, in case of sudden
acceleration / deceleration.
CONT…
 Since the engine is controlled by ECM*
(Engine Control Module), more accurate
amount of A/F mixture will be supplied
and as a result complete combustion will
take place. This leads to effective
utilization of fuel supplied and hence low
emission level.
 The mileage of the vehicle will be
improved
TYPES OF MPFI SYSTEMS
 I. Throttle-body injection or single-point
injection
 Throttle body is similar to carburettor throttle
body with throttle valve controlling amount of air
entering intake manifold.
 The TBI system injects gasoline at the throttle
body (the same location where a carburetor
introduces fuel).
 The system was a low cost system.
TBI
CONT….
 II. Port Injection – In this injector is placed
on one side of intake manifold near the intake
port.
 The injector sprays gasoline in the air in intake
manifold.
 The mixture then enters through intake valve
and enters cylinder.
 If six cylinder engine – six injectors
 Uniform fuel distribution,
 Increase in power output
 More precise A:F ratio control
PORT INJECTION
OTHER WAY - TYPES OF MPFI
 I.D-MPFI system – It is a manifold fuel
injection system. The system senses the
vacuum in intake manifold & also senses
volume of air by it’s density.
 Both sensors along with speed sensor sends
information to ECU.
 Then ECU in turn send signal to injector to
regulate amount of fuel supply.
 The fuel is injected in intake manifold.

 The fuel then mixes with air enter cylinder.

D MPFI FUEL INJECTION
CONT….
 II. L-MPFI system – It is a port fuel
injection system.
 The air flow sensor senses the amount of air as
it enter the into intake manifold.
 Also called Air Mass / Air Flow Metering
 This information is sent to ECU. Along with
this speed sensor also sends information to
ECU.
 Then ECU in turn send signal to injector to
regulate amount of fuel supply. The fuel then
mixes with air enter cylinder.
L MPFI FUEL INJECTION
BOSCH FUEL PUMP - CONSTRUCTION
 Various components of Pump are
 1. Rack – connected to accelerator pedal
 2. Quadrant Gear - in contact rack and helps
rotate plunger
 3. Plunger with helical groove – fitted in barrel
 4. Cylinder
 5. Delivery Valve – fitted at top
 6. Spring – placed above delivery valve.
 7. Delivery pipe – connects pump to injector
 8. Injector – placed on engine cylinder
CONT..

 9.
Cam shaft - Plunger has up & down motion
due to camshaft below it
WORKING
 Pumping of fuel –
 As cam rotates plunger moves up and down in
barrel.
 As plunger moves down fuel comes in from
inlet port.
 As plunger moves up the fuel is pumped
through delivery valve at high pressure.
 Before this plunger covers both the ports i. e.
Inlet & Spill ports. Then pressure builds up.
 The delivery valve spring ensures return back
of valve on it’s position.
CONT….
 Regulate speed -
 As driver pushes rack the quadrant gear rotates.

 This rotates plunger.

 As plunger rotates the helical groove also changes

it’s position.
 For low delivery – the more fuel will be pumped
back to reservoir and less fuel goes to delivery
valve.
 For high delivery – the more fuel will be pumped
to injector and less fuel goes to reservoir.
 Like wise groove position decided amount of fuel
delivered to injector.
BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM
 Battery – Provide the power required for
the spark production.
 Ignition switch – Used to turn on and off
the ignition system.
 Capacitor- It consists of two metal plates
separated by an insulating material.
 Ballast resistor-It regulates the
primary current through the
primary winding. It is provided for
protecting the spark plug from
damage due to overheating.
 Spark plug – It is having the two
electrodes separated by an adequate gap.
 Distributor – It distributes the
ignition surges to the spark plugs in
the correct firing order.
 Contact breaker – It is a mechanical
member to make and break the primary
circuit.
 Ignition coil – It stores the energy in
its magnetic field and delivers it at
the required time to the spark plug.
 The primary winding consists of wire coiled
around an iron core.
 Over this is a secondary winding of many more
turns of finer wire attached to the distributor.
 Current flowing through the primary winding
creates a magnetic field.
 When the breaker cam opens the breaker
points the circuit is broken and current stops.
 The magnetic field collapses, inducing in the
secondary winding a much higher voltage that
is led to the distributor.
 Inside the distributor a moving finger rotates
at half engine speed.
 As it rotates it touches contacts, each of which
runs to a different cylinder.
 Rotation is timed so that when the finger is
touching the contact for a particular cylinder, a
high voltage has just been induced in the
secondary winding of the ignition coil and the
piston has almost reached the top of the
compression stroke.
 Thus a high voltage is impressed across the
spark plug gap.
 The spark plug consists of a center
electrode imbedded in insulating ceramic.
 Around the outside is a threaded metal
shell that screws into a hole in the top of
the cylinder.
 A ground electrode extends from the shell
over the end of the center electrode.
 Between the two electrodes there is a small
gap of .015–.040 in. (.038–.102 cm).
 At about 8,000 volts a spark jumps the gap
and ignites the air-gasoline mixture.
BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM
 Itmainly consists of a 6 or 12 volt battery,
ammeter, ignition switch, auto-
transformer (step up transformer), contact
breaker, capacitor, distributor
rotor, distributor contact points, spark
plugs, etc.
 Primary Circuit : It consists of 6 or 12 V
battery, ammeter, ignition switch,
primary winding it has 200-300 turns of
20 SWG (Sharps Wire Gauge) gauge wire,
contact breaker, capacitor.
 Secondary Circuit : It consists of
secondary winding. Secondary Ignition
Systems winding consists of about 21000
turns of 40 (S WG) gauge wire.
 Bottom end of which is connected to
bottom end of primary and top end of
secondary winding is connected to centre
of distributor rotor.
 Distributor rotors rotate and make
contacts with contact points and are
connected to spark plugs which are fitted
in cylinder heads (engine earth).
WORKING
 When the ignition switch is closed and engine
in cranked, as soon as the contact breaker
closes, a low voltage current will flow through
the primary winding.
 It is also to be noted that the contact beaker
cam opens and closes the circuit 4-times (for 4
cylinders) in one revolution.
 When the contact breaker opens the contact,
the magnetic field begins to collapse.
 Because of this collapsing magnetic field,
current will be induced in the secondary
winding.
CONT…
 And because of more turns (@ 21000 turns) of
secondary, voltage goes unto 28000-30000
volts.
 This high voltage current is brought to centre
of the distributor rotor. Distributor rotor
rotates and supplies this high voltage current
to proper stark plug depending upon the engine
firing order.
 When the high voltage current jumps the spark
plug gap, it produces the spark and the
charge is ignited - combustion starts-products
of combustion expand and produce power.
CAPACITOR FUNCTION
 The Function of the capacitor is to reduce
arcing at the contact breaker (CB) points.
 Also when the CB opens the magnetic
field in the primary winding begins to
collapse.
 When the magnetic field is collapsing
capacitor gets fully charged and then it
starts discharging and helps in building
up of voltage in secondary winding.
CHANGES IN ACTUAL INDICATOR DIAGRAM
 Compression & Expansion are not isentropic.
 Heat Addition can not be at constant volume in
otto cycle.
 During suction stroke the pressure inside
cylinder must be below atmospheric pressure.
 During exhaust stroke the pressure inside
cylinder must be above atmospheric pressure.
 Heat rejection can not be at constant pressure.

 Hence actual indicator diagram defers from

ideal indicator diagram.