The Basics of

Earthquake Location

William Menke
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
Columbia University
The basic data in earthquake location is

Arrival Time, t

The time of day that a wave from the

earthquake arrives at a seismograph
station
The distinction between

Arrival Time: time of day something arrives

And

Travel Time: the length of time spent

traveling

Is very important in earthquake location!

Arrival Time ≠Travel Time

Q: a car arrived in town after traveling for an

half an hour at sixty miles an hour. Where
did it start?
A. Thirty miles away

Q: a car arrived in town at half past one,

traveling at sixty miles an hour. Where and
when did it start?
A. Are you crazy?
An earthquake location has
4 Parameters

x, y (epicenter)
z (depth)
t (origin time)

Together, (x, y, z) are called the

hypocenter. The fact that origin time is
an unknown adds complexity to the
earthquake location problem!
 Suppose you
contour arrival time
on surface of earth

Earthquake’s
(x,y) is center
of bulls-eye

but what about

its depth?
 Since origin
time unknown
we have not
marked it on
Deep
time axis

Earthquake’s
depth related to
Shallow curvature of
arrival time at
origin
 Fundamental data:
arrival time tpi of waves
from earthquake p to station i

Wave could be either P

wave or S wave. Both are
used.
 Fundamental Relationship

Arrival Time = Origin Time + Travel Time

tpi = tp + Tpi

ray Traveltime Tpi along ray

connecting earthquake p
with station q can be
earthquake p calculated using ray theory
with origin time tp
 Locating an earthquake
requires knowing the

earth’s seismic velocity structure

accurately
so that traveltime can be calculated
between stations and hypothetical
hypocenters
 example
velocity
structure
(Iceland)
in this case
assumed to
vary only
with depth
Basic Principle

Best estimates of the hypocentral parameters and origin

time are the ones that best predict the arrival times at all
the stations.

Usually, “best predicts” means minimizing

the least-squares prediction error, E:

Ep = Si [ tpiobserved – tpipredicted ]2

where tpipredicted = tppredicted + Tpipredicted

and where Tpipredicted depends on (xp, yp, zp)

The mathematical problem is to find the
hypocentral parameters,
xppredicted=(xp, yp, zp)predicted
and origin time,
tppredicted
that give the best fit
(which is to say, minimize the error)

But the problem is that the traveltime varies in a

complicated, non-linear way with the hypocentral
parameters, xppredicted
The usual solution is to use an iterative method:

Step 1: Guess a set of hypocentral parameters,

h=(xp, yp, zp, tp) = (xp, , tp) and use it to predict
the traveltime

Step 2: Determine how much the arrival time would

change if the guess were changed by a small
amount, dh = (dx, dt).

Step 3: Use that information to attempt to find a

slightly different h that reduces the error, E.

Do steps 2 and 3 over and over again, hoping that

eventually the error will become acceptably
small.
It turns out that Step 2 is incredibly easy.

A small change in origin time, dt, simply

shifts the arrival times by the same
amount, dt = dt.

The effect of a small change in location

depends on the direction of the shift. A
change dx along the ray direction shifts the
time by dt=dx/v. But a change
perpendicular to the ray has no effect.
This is Geiger’s Principle, and illustrated in
the next slide.
Step 3 is pretty easy too. The trick is to
realize that the equation that says the
observed and predicted traveltimes are
equal is now linear in the unknowns:

tpiobs = tpipre = tp + Tpipre

= tpguess + dt + Tpipre(xpguess) + (t/v)dx

Or by moving two terms to the left:

tpiobs - Tpipre(xpguess) - tpguess = dt + (t/v)dx
The methodology for solving a linear
equation in the least-squares sense is very
well known. It requires some tedious
matrix algebra, so we wont discuss it here.
But is routine.
 but with any method, a key
question is …

What can go wrong?

here are some possibilities …

 Too few data …

Since there are four unknowns,

you must have at least four arrival
time measurements. Any fewer,
and you cannot locate the
earthquake.
 Bad Station Geometry …

But P and S waves from each of

two stations won’t do it, because
there is a left-right ambiguity

earthquake here?

station 1
station 2

or here?
 Another poor geometry …
When the stations are all to one side of
the stations, the rays all leave the
source in roughly the same direction
and location trades off with origin time

station 2
shallow and late
deep and early

Depending upon ray geometry,

this trade-off can also involve
depth and origin time
 Recently, a new earthquake
location method has been
developed

that instead of locating a single

earthquake on the basis of its
arrival times (as above)

locates groups of earthquakes on

the basis of the difference
in their arrival times
This method is often called the

Double-Difference Method

the following figures illustrate its

power
Earthquakes in
Long Valley
Caldera,
California
located with
traveltimes
Note
amorphous
clouds of
earthquakes, no
evidence of
faults.

Courtesty of
Felix
Walhhauser,
LDEO
Earthquakes in
Long Valley
Caldera,
California
located with the
double-
difference
method

Note many
earthquakes fall
on lines, so
there is clear
evidence of
faults!

Courtesty of
Felix
Walhhauser,
LDEO
The basic data in the double-difference
method is the differential arrival time between
two different earthquakes observed at the
same station: Dtpqi = tpi - tqi
But that is another story …