CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO MARINE POLLUTION

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OBJECTIVES:
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
Give the various meaning of pollution;
Distinguish marine pollution from other types of
environmental pollution;
Identify the various sources and origins of marine
pollution; and
Know the international conventions relating to marine
pollution.
Introduction
“Our environment in its pristine from is aesthetically
beautiful and pleasing to behold. However, environment
is not something to be worshipped or preserved merely
for prevention’s sake. For life, man must use the
environment - - - “---and with billions of lives on earth,
environment must be used to sustain those lives”
(Sampson, 1996).
 Over the years, it can be said that environment has been
affected by man’s exploration of natural resources in order
to sustain industrial development. The use of our
environment is principally evidenced by the progress of
various industries as well as the increase of world
population. Technological innovations aimed at exploiting
natural resources in order to sustain the basic needs of
human beings were introduced.
The Various Meanings of Pollution
In order to obtain a full understanding of the concept of
marine pollution, it is essential to know the meaning of
various kinds of pollution. The New Lexicon Webster’s
Dictionary of the English Language (1996) denoted that the
word “pollute” means to make something unhealthy. From
the meaning given by said dictionary, the word “pollution”
may be defined as something that makes a pure thing
impure.
 Scientifically, pollution is the chemical, gaseous and
organic wastes, which contaminate air, soil or water.
Anything that pollutes these earth’s elements is called
“pollutant”.
Environmental pollution basically refers to all kinds of
pollution in the earth’s environment. These are different
meanings of environmental pollution. The meaning depends
on what part of the earth’s elements has been polluted.
Marine pollution is only one type of environment pollution.
For the purpose of distinguishing marine pollution from
other type of environmental pollution, here are the
definitions and some information about different types of
environmental pollution:
1.Air Pollution
Air pollution is also called atmospheric pollution.
Atmosphere outside our homes may contain pollutants
such as dusts, smoke, vapours, etc. Substantial
quantities of these pollutants stay within the
atmosphere for a period of time. The quantities and
duration oftentimes create harmful effects to persons,
places, animals and things.
 The “Greenhouse effect” or “Global warming” can
be within the effects of air pollution. The “greenhouse
effect” in environmental science is a popular term used
in studying the effects on the earth’s surface
temperature, which are caused by variable
components of the earth’s lower atmosphere.
 Grolier’s Encyclopedia explained that “The surface
atmosphere is composed of gases such as, water
vapor, carbon dioxide and methane that keep ground
temperature at a global average of about 15 degrees
centigrade (60 degrees Fahrenheit). Without them, the
average would be below the freezing point of water.
The gases have their effects because an incoming solar
radiation strikes the surface. The surface gives off
infrared radiation (heat that are trapped and kept near
ground level).”
Figure 1.1 – A greenhouse built to control temperature of indoor
plants.
 According to Steiner (2007), director of the UN
Environment Program, the IPCC report presented
unequivocal evidence that climate change was related and
linked to the human activities over the years. The following
are some important disclosures of the IPCC report:
a.Warming of the climate system is unequivocal as
evidenced from the increase in the average of ocean
and air temperatures as well as the melting of snow and
ice that resulted in the increase of sea level average
point. The earth’s surface temperatures were predicted
to increase between 1.8oC and 4.0oC and for the sea
levels, by about 7.1 inches till the turn of the new
century or 2100.
a.From 1995 to 2006, the 12 warmest temperatures
have been recorded worldwide. Increase drying
was linked with higher temperatures and
decreased precipitations have contributed to
changes in droughts.
b.There have been global increases in carbon
dioxide concentration. This was attributed to the
use of fossils as sources of fuels.
 The IPCC report made different groups of
environment advocates to shift their thinking that
climate change came from natural causes. The
scientific evidences presented in the report
encouraged the governments of the countries as well
their people to think of measures on how to cope up
with the warnings on the possible bleak scenarios
predicted in the report.
2. Water Pollution
It refers to the alteration of water, which reduces the
quality of its usefulness to people, plants, animals and
properties. Water pollution can be considered as a
major pollution in the Philippines and even in other
developing countries. The first two major types of
pollution in most developing countries are air and
land/soil pollution.
 There are many sources of water pollution. One example
is the use of fertilizers with chemical contents. These are
harmful to both human beings and animals because they
contain poisonous substances. Substantial quantities of
solid wastes mixed with bodies of water such as rivers,
lakes, swamps, etc. cause contamination of drinking and
reduces the ability of water to perform natural purification.
3. Sound Pollution
This refers to any sound that is too loud and irritating to
human ears is called sound pollution. Noise is measured in
decibels. Any sound that goes beyond the normal decibels
could be harmful and annoying. Sound waves travel to air
medium and sometimes also considered as within the air
pollution category. Too much noise created in closed and
small spaces may cause either permanent or temporary
hearing loss.
4. Pollution from Solid Wastes or Refuse
Solid wastes are in the forms of garbage, rubbish,
demolition debris, food wastes, street litters, etc. They
originate from the activities of both human beings and
animals. Refuse or wastes such as papers, plastic
plates, food leftovers, etc. are usually discarded and
disposed outside the premises of homes and offices.
Figure 1.2 – Garbage, rubbish, litters and food wastes are solid
wastes problem of many developing countries.
The Philippines has a number of laws concerning solid
waste management. Some of them are as follows:
Republic Act 7160 (Local Government Code). This
law devolves certain powers to the local government
units including enforcement of law concerning
cleanliness, sanitation and preparation of solid waste
management program and other environmental
functions.
The BOT Law of 1994. This law provides that
infrastructure and development projects which
include the environmental protection from pollution
can be partially implemented by the private sector.
PD 552, 825, 856 and 984. All these laws provide
rules and procedures covering sanitation and
disposal.
The Clean Air Act of 1999. President Joseph Ejercito
Estrada signed it into law. This law prohibits the use of
incinerators but allows the traditional “siga” system to
reduce garbage problems.
5. Pollution from Hazardous Wastes
Hazardous wastes are either liquid or solid wastes or
a combination of wastes that pose or create hazards to
human health or living organisms for the following
reasons:
 Wastes are non-degradable
 Wastes can be biologically magnified
 Wastes tend to cause detrimental cumulative effects
 Hazardous wastes can be categorized in accordance
to the following:
 Chemical wastes
 Radioactive wastes
 Biological wastes
 Flammable wastes
 Explosive wastes
 Hazardous wastes contain significant levels of reactive
substances such as carcinogenic, mutagenic or teratogenic
compounds. These substances can cause fire or explosion
and release of toxic fumes. Wastes containing these harmful
substances can also corrode metal containers, such as
barrels, tanks, drums, pails, etc. Hazardous wastes originate
from businesses and industries producing products such as
batteries, metals, paints, fertilizers, etc.
 According to the MMDA (2003), there are approximately
3,730 health care facilities in the Metro Manila areas, which
of 1,599 are hospitals and clinics. It estimated that these
facilities generate a total of 60 tons of waste each day and
approximately, nine of these have their own incineration
facilities. MMDA, however, required that hospitals provide
four types of waste bags, for the following use:
 Black trash bag – for the collection of non-infectious dry
waste or non-biodegradable/non compostable wastes.
 Green trash bag – for collection of non-infectious wet
waste or biodegradable/compostable waste.
 Yellow trash bag (with 0.004 gauge) – for collection of dry
and wet infectious and puncture-proof container covered
with thick solution of lime.
 Orange trash bags (with trefoil sign) – for collection of
radioactive wastes which will be stored in the hospital unit
rendered inactive or disposed of in accordance with
prescribe rules and regulation of the Philippine Nuclear
Research Institute (PNRI).
 The MMDA’s regulation further required that hospitals
provide their own means of disposal such as, hospital
incineration system; hospital enclosed burning pit, ground
pits, and a sewage disposal system for body fluids from
patients with infectious diseases. Collection of pathological
and infectious wastes is carried out using separate
receptacles equipped with a plastic liner.
6. Marine Pollution
Marine Pollution is defined as “An introduction by man,
directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the marine
environment (including estuaries) resulting in such
deleterious effects as harmful to living resources, hazards to
human health, hindrance to marine activities including
fishing, impairment of quality for use of seawater and
reduction of amenities” (United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNICED, 1982, Art.1)).
INTERNATIONAL CONCERNS ON MARINE POLLUTION
In the last fifty years, expressions of concern towards
prevention and control of marine pollution and protection of
marine environment were brought into a number of
international conferences. The following is the series of
international conventions relating to marine pollution in the
second half of the 20th century.
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of
the Sea by Oil (1954)
One of the earliest international conventions dealing with
the prevention of pollution of the sea was the International
Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil
also called the Oilpol Convention. It was adopted on May 12,
1954 and entered into force on July 26, 1958. The Oilpol
Convention prohibited the international discharge of oil or
oily mixtures from seagoing vessels, except tankers of under
150 gross tons and other ships of fewer than 500 gross tons.
 The prohibition was applied in specific areas called
prohibited zones. In this convention, all ship was required to
provide an oil record book. The oil record may be subjected
to inspection by authorities of contracting parties. Several
amendments were made to the convention, after its entry
into force. The amendments were made in 1962, 1969, and
1971. The 1971 amendment recognized the need to protect
the “Great Barrier Reef” areas in Australia, as an area of
unique scientific importance.
International Convention Relating to Intervention on the
High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties (1969)
This convention was adopted on November 29, 1969. It
entered into force on May 6, 1975 or almost six years later.
This convention affirmed the right of the coastal State to take
certain measures on the high seas, as may be necessary, to
prevent, eliminate, or mitigate danger to its coastlines or
related interests from pollution by oil or any threat thereof.
 A protocol to this convention was adopted on November 2,
1973, in view of the increase of substances other than oil,
which were carried by ships. The protocol formulated a list of
the substances other than oil carried by the ships. It extended
the regulations of preventing marine pollution by regulating
the substances which were listed in the protocol or which
characteristics were closely similar to the listed substances.
 In 1991 and 1996, amendments to the convention were
made. Both amendments revised the list of the previous
substances regulated in the convention. The 1996 list entered
into force on December 19, 1997.
 International Conference on Human Environment (1972)
and the Inter-Governmental Convention on the Dumping of
Wastes at Sea (1972)
In 1972 an International Conference on Human
Environment was held in Stockholm, Sweden. Protection of
ocean environment and resources were included in the
agenda of the said conference. Relatively, on November 13,
1972, the Inter-Governmental Convention on the Dumping
of Wastes at Sea was adopted through an international
meeting held in London, England. It also called the London
Dumping Convention (LDC).
 The London Dumping Convention entered into force on
August 30, 1975. It prohibits the dumping of certain
hazardous materials. It also required a prior special permit
for other wastes or matter.
A series of amendments were made to the convention.
These took place in 1978, 1980, 1989, and 1993. The 1993
amendment entered into force on February 20, 1994. It
prohibited the dumping into sea of low-level radioactive
wastes, the phasing out of industrial wastes dumping by
1995, and the incinerating at sea of industrial wastes.
 On November 7, 1996 a protocol to the convention was
adopted. It has not yet entered into force. The protocol
aimed to make major change to the preventive measures
that have to be undertaken by contracting parties in case
there is reason to believe that wastes or other matter
introduced into the marine environment are likely to cause
harm even when there is no conclusive proof thereof.
 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution by
Ship, 1973, as Modified by the Protocol of 1978, Relating
Thereto (MARPOL 73/78)
The most comprehensive international maritime
convention for the prevention of marine pollution is the
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships, 1973, as modified by protocol of 1978, relating thereto.
It is also called MARPOL 73/78 and probably the most
complete international convention covering prevention of
pollution of the marine environment by ships.
 It is a combination of two treaties adopted in 1973 and
1978. The International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) was adopted on November 2,
1973. In 1978, a protocol relating to the 1973 convention
was adopted at a conference on Tanker Safety and Pollution
Prevention. Since the MARPOL 73 convention was not yet
enforced at that time, the 1978 protocol absorbed the
parent convention. Thus, it is now called MARPOL 73/78.
Further discussions on the contents and regulations of
MARPOL 73/78 are in the succeeding chapters of this
textbook.
 From the historical records of the international treaties
concerning protection of marine environment, it can be said
that the international maritime community has established
an international legal framework that serves as foundation
towards the global protection of marine environment.
Perhaps what environmentalists should watch is the extent of
applications or implementations by the concerned parties of
what have been agreed upon and ratified by the parties to
the conventions.
 ORIGINS OR SOURCES OF MARINE POLLUTION
Section 5, Articles 207-216 of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea or UNCLOS (1982)
identified the main sources of marine pollution. Based
on the identified sources, the Convention laid down
the fundamental obligation of all States in protecting
and preserving the marine environment.
The six sources of marine pollution are as follows:
1.Land-based and coastal-based activities.
2.Continental shelf-drilling activities.
3.Sea-bed mining.
4.Ocean dumping.
5.Vessel-sourced pollution.
6.Atmospheric sources of pollution.
 The United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) has undertaken the activities
involving the ratification and implementation of the Law of
the Sea Convention. The UNCLOS and UNCED joined together
to carry out the tasks of preparing the instruments and
agreements, programs of its adoption, implementation,
preparation of conferences, etc. in the national, regional, and
worldwide levels (Borgese, 1995).
 The Land-Based and Coastal-Based Activities
Land-Based activities contribute an estimated 70%
of all marine pollution. UNCED highlighted the
pollutants coming from land-based and coastal-based
activities. They are as follows: Human settlement;
land-use construction of coastal infrastructure;
agriculture; forestry; urban development; and tourism
industries.
Many coastal-based activities are visible sources of
marine pollution. In the Philippines for example, many
poor people built their houses and live near the
seashore because their main source of income is
fishing. Solid wastes, such as garbage and sewage are
indiscriminately disposed by coastal residents into the
seas. Great quantities of these wastes when introduced
into waters of the sea result in water contamination.
 The bacterial nutrients can be eaten by fish or fish stocks
which are caught by fishermen. The situation in the
Philippines is true in the most developing countries. UNCED
described that “Half of the world’s population lives in less
than six-kilometre areas from the seas and waters. It
predicted that by year 2020, three fourths of the world
population may reside in this coastal zone, which includes
many poor, densely crowded settlements”. (Press Summary,
Agenda 21, 1992)
 The hazards of pollution coming from coastal-based
activities include red tides. The red tide is caused by the
excessive growth of plant in water due to an over abundance
of nutrients and bacterial contamination. Red tide is also the
result of disposal of pollutants from local and upstream
sources. Destruction of wetlands due to the pursuit of
economic progress is also one of the causes of red tide
organisms. Red tides and its impacts on the production of fish
and shellfish are seriously being studied by many coastal
countries.
 Marine pollution from land-based activities
basically refers to pollution coming from the use of
chemicals in construction, production, and
manufacturing food product as well as improper use of
lands. The wide use of chemicals by various land-based
industries increases the spread of major pollutants.
Consumers buying and consuming the chemical based
products may endanger their health.
 Factories using chemicals oftentimes diffuse, release, or
discharge the substances into the river basins, catch basins,
and estuaries (river mouths). These chemicals together with
liquid wastes continue flowing toward the seas. When
untreated liquid waste is released into waterways, they
pollute the marine environment. In developing countries,
less than 10% of urban wastes are subjected to treatment
and only a small fraction of its meets the standard quality.
Figure 1.3 – A factory in production activity often affects marine
pollution.
Continental Shelf Drilling
Continental shelf is the shallow part of the sea floor
immediately adjacent to a continent (Bush, 1997).
Continental shelf includes the sea-bed and subsoil of
the submarine areas adjacent to the coast but outside
the area of a territorial sea to a depth of two hundred
meters or beyond this limit.
 The exploitation of ocean resources has been a growing
concern of marine environmentalists and geologists of our
times, especially in some countries where strict measures of
environmental safety are frequently violated. In 1958, the
United Nations Convention on Continental Shelf established
that all offshore installations should be removed from the
marine environment. This was adopted to prevent hazards
to shipping and to ascertain the legitimate use of the seas.
 Before the convention, oil fields located offshore
were not yet connected to land by pipelines. Frequent
oil releases were reported, likewise, threat of
dumping oil wastes and noxious hazardous materials
used in the operations of offshore were strongly
prevalent at that time.
Seabed Mining
In seabed mining, ships stay on an ocean station for
a number of years. There, the ships extract minerals
and transfer them to another ship. These auxiliary
ships help in taking the minerals ashore. Although the
mining and auxiliary are away from the nearest land,
their extraction and transfer operations are
continuously done.
 Wastes from such operations are disposed into the waters,
for as long as the ships are on ocean station. These
operations, therefore, contribute to marine pollution. The
ships work non-stop for years and thousands of miles away
from the nearest land. Wastes coming from the operations
contribute to the pollution of marine environment.
Figure 1.4 – Ships extracting minerals from seabed.
 Over exploration and exploitation of sea and ocean
recourses have been noted by some sectors. The World
Wildlife and the World Conservation Union have both
expressed serious concerns on the activities relating to over
exploitation of ocean resources. The two organizations called
for an immediate formulation of international agreements to
regulate the management, protection, and exploitation of
high seas beyond the 200 nautical mile limit of the exclusive
economic zones of coastal states (Lazaroff, 2001, May 10.
http://ens-news.com).
Ocean Dumping
In the 1940s, the nuclear industry chose the oceans
as convenient site for dumping their nuclear wastes.
Many countries which have nuclear production such
as the USA, France, UK, Germany, Sweden, USSR, etc.,
used the open seas in the Atlantic and Pacific as their
dumping sites.
 In order to protect the marine environment from the hazardous
effects of nuclear dumping, the London Dumping Convention was
held in 1972. As explained earlier, the convention prohibited
dumping of high-level radioactive wastes. However, it was only the
high-level waste that was prohibited. The low-level wastes, though
they also contain radioactive wastes and isotopes, such as
plutonium and strontium, were not prohibited. It was therefore
believed that dumping at sea could still take place out of sight.
When the treatment and recycling plants were invented later, there
has been reduction of risk of marine pollution by dumping.
 In November 1993, the London Dumping Convention was
amended and the dumping of industrial wastes at sea
together with incinerating waste at sea was totally
prohibited. It took effect for member countries on January 1,
1996. Nonetheless, concerned organizations advocating for
complete prohibitions of dumping, such as the Greenpeace,
has remained vigilant in regard to the implementation of the
convention. The Greenpeace is apprehensive that open-
ocean dumoping can still be done out of sight.
Vessel-Sourced Pollution
Much pollution in marine environment comes from the
land-based sources. However, vessel-sourced pollution also
contributes significantly to the degradation of marine
environment. From the total percentage of marine pollution,
vessel-sourced pollution comprises about 20%. The 10%
originates from direct shipping operations and another 10%
comes from ship’s dumping (UNCED, 1992 June, Annex 4/3,
Agenda 21).
 The significant percentage contribution of vessel-sourced
pollution can be attributed to the continuous growth of seaborne
trade. Cargoes carried by ships contain potentially hazardous
substances that are damaging to the marine environment when
accidentally or intentionally discharged.
Operational discharge of pollutants comes from routine
operations such as loading, discharging, bunkering, etc. These
activities normally occur in port or in oil terminals. An estimated
75% of six hundred thousand tons of oil is dumped into the oceans
each year. These come from shipping practices rather than
accidental spills.
Figure 1.5 – A vessel in operation can be a source of marine pollution.
Atmospheric Sources of Pollution
In 1982, the ozone layer of Northern Latitude was found by
scientists to be in depleting stage. The depletion has created a hole in
that part of the earth’s atmosphere. In Antarctica, depletion of the
ozone layer was also discovered to have created a hole in the earth’s
atmosphere. Ozone’s depletion is dangerous to human health
because of exposure in the sun’s ultraviolet rays. These two cases
became the serious concerns of modern scientists. They believed,
and it became a common belief, that burning fossil fuels contributes
to the depletion of ozone layer. Contributory effects on the ozone
depletion come from man-made halon and chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) that are released into the atmosphere.
 The thermosphere is the layer of atmosphere most
distant from the earth. It starts approximately 80 km in
altitude and considered as the hottest layer. The
mesosphere follows the thermosphere. This layer extends
about 50 to 80 km in altitude and with very sparse
atmosphere, comprising for only approximately 1% of the
mass of the atmosphere.
 The stratosphere follows the mesosphere and it extends from
approximately 10 to 12 km to around 50 km above earth’s surface.
The stratosphere contains about 90% of the atmospheric ozone and
it regulates temperature as the sun’s energy is transformed into
kinetic energy. The troposphere is the layer closest to the earth’s
surface and contains more than 80% of the total atmospheric mass.
This layer is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and
other trace gases, water droplets, dust and other particles. The
troposphere is where most weather occurs.
SUMMARY
1.For many years, natural resources were exploited by
mankind to sustain industrial revolution and economic
development. Conversation and protection of the
environment were neglected. Indiscriminate disposal of
wastes and pollutants by both industries and consumers
resulted in serious damage to the earth’s elements.
2. Marine environment has not been spared by mankind’s disregard
of the environmental considerations. Over the years the seas and
oceans became receptors of almost all kinds of wastes or
pollutants.
3. Concerns on prevention of marine pollution have been brought to
international fora in the second half of the last century.
International conventions were adopted by the government of
different countries in order to protect the marine environment.
Private organizations also rendered assistance to the governments
by making people aware of the necessity to take care of the
environment.
4. By definition, pollution is anything that makes
something unhealthy. Scientifically, it is the chemical,
gaseous, and organic wastes that contaminate the air,
soil, and water. Anything that pollutes these elements
is called pollutant.
5. There are several meanings of environmental pollution. The
definitions are in accordance to the type of pollution in an
earth’s element. The various types of environmental
pollution are as follows: air, water, sound, solid wastes,
hazardous wastes, and marine pollution.
6. Marine pollution is defined as an introduction by man,
directly or indirectly of substances or energy into the marine
environment (including estuaries) resulting in such
deleterious effects as harmful to living resources, hazards to
human health, hindrance to marine activities including fishing
impairments of quality for use of seawater, and reduction of
amenities.
7. There are six main sources of marine environmental
pollution according to UNCLOS/UNCED. These sources are as
follows: Land-base or Coastal-based, Continental Shelf-
drilling, Sea-bed mining, Ocean dumping, Vessel-sourced, and
Atmospheric sources.
8. Higher percentage of the total pollution in marine
environment comes from land-based sources. Vessel-sourced
pollution represents only 10% from direct shipping operations
and another 10% from ships dumping.

9. Routine operation is a cause of vessel-sourced pollution.

Pollution comes from loading, discharging, and bunkering.
Quantity of pollutants entering the seas coming from this
source is greater than accidental sources.
the end……,,,

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