CE 2020: Construction Materials Dr. B. Munwar Basha IIT Hyderabad

Bituminous Materials
CE 2020: Construction Materials Dr. B. Munwar Basha IIT Hyderabad

PETROLEUM AND PRODUCTION
Petrolem = Petra + Oleum

Rock + Oil
 Petroleum is often called crude oil, fossil fuel or oil.

 It is called a fossil fuel because it was formed from the remains of
tiny sea plants and animals that died millions of years ago.
 When the plants and animals died, they sank to the bottom of the
oceans.
 Here, they were buried by thousands of kms of sand and
sediment, which turned into sedimentary rock.
 As the layers increased, they pressed harder and harder on the
decayed remains at the bottom.
 The heat and pressure changed the remains and, eventually,
petroleum was formed.
CE 2020: Construction Materials Dr. B. Munwar Basha 2 IIT Hyderabad

How coal formed
Millions of years ago trees died and fell to the
bottom of swamps.
Over time they became covered the trees became fossilized,

by mud and rock. forming coal.
Over millions of years, due to high

temperatures and pressure…

How oil and natural gas formed

Where We Get Oil?
The world's top five crude oil-producing

countries are:
 Saudi Arabia
 Russia
 United States
 Iran
 China

Concentration of Oil
 Structural Traps
 Fault
 Anticline
 Salt dome
http://www.priweb.org/ed/pgws/systems/traps/traps_home.html



Petroleum is defined by 4 physical categories historically
1. Boiling point
2. Density
3. Odour
4. Viscosity
Light-heavy : Low boiling point and relative density

Heavy-heavy : High boiling point, viscous.
Because crude oil has Fe, Mg, Ca, P, V, S, Zn, Co, clay, water
and other residuals, it has to distillate for internal
combustion engines.

2009 Oil consumption bbl/day
1 World 85.220.000
United
2 United States 20.680.000 14 1.763.000
Kingdom
3 European Union 14.380.000 15 Italy 1.702.000
4 China 7.880.000 16 Spain 1.611.000
5 Japan 5.007.000 17 Iran 1.600.000
6 India 2.722.000 18 Indonesia 1.564.000
7 Russia 2.699.000 19 Saudi Arabia 1.000.000
8 Germany 2.456.000 20 Netherlands 984.200
9 Brazil 2.372.000 26 Turkey 676.600
10 Canada 2.371.000
11 Mexico 2.119.000
12 Korea, South 2.080.000
13 France 1.950.000

Crude Oil
 Crude oil is a mixture.
 It contains hundreds of different compounds.
 Some are small but most are large.
 Nearly all of these compounds contain carbon and
hydrogen only.
 They are called hydrocarbons.
 Also some other compounds contain small amounts of N
and S. Why?
Hydrocarbons are molecules that contain

carbon and hydrogen only.

Composition by weight
Element Percent range Hydrocarbon Average Range

Carbon 83 to 87% Paraffins 30% 15 to 60%
Hydrogen 10 to 14% Naphthenes 49% 30 to 60%
Nitrogen 0.1 to 2% Aromatics 15% 3 to 30%
Oxygen 0.05 to 1.5% Asphaltics 6% remainder
Sulfur 0.05 to 6.0%
Metals < 0.1%

Oil Refining
 Typical Oil
 Gasoline C4 to C10 27%
 Kerosene C11 to C13 13%
 Diesel C14 to C18 12%
 Heavy gas oil C19 to C25 10%
 Lubricating oil C26-C40 20%
 Residue >C40 18%

The importance of oil
 The hydrocarbons in crude

oil are essential to our way
of life
 We use them as fuels for
most forms of transport.
 We also use them as raw
materials from which a
HUGE range of
useful everyday substances
are made

Making Oil Useful
 Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons with a VERY wide
range of sizes.
 Crude oil itself has no uses because its properties are not
definite.
 To make crude oil into useful substances we have to separate
the mixture into molecules of similar size.
 This is done in an oil refinery in a process called fractional
distillation.
 The physical property used to separate the fractions is boiling
point.

From the Field to the Refinery
Oil drilling occurs both at sea and on land, depending on the size and
profitability of the oil deposits located.
The first step is the transport of the crude oil from its natural location to the
refinery.
Once obtained from the ground, the oil is transported by ship, truck or
pipeline to the refinery.
Extraction process of crude oil from the Sea

Oil Rig from air

Fractional Distillation Of Crude Oil
• To separate it into useful products begins.
• Have complex stages and each part have several processes.
• The very first step is to break up the crude oil.

Distillation
 Distillation separates chemicals by the difference in how easily
they vaporize.
 The two major types of classical distillation include
continuous distillation and batch distillation.
 Continuous distillation, as the name says, continuously takes a
feed and separates it into two or more products.
 Batch distillation takes on lot (or batch) at a time of feed and
splits it into products by selectively removing the more volatile
fractions over time.
 Many industries use distillation for critical separations in
making useful products. These industries include petroleum
refining, beverages, chemical processing, petrochemicals, and
natural gas processing.
 Fractional distillation of crude oil is the first step in the
production of many of the materials we have come to
rely on in modern life.
 All our fossil fuels, virtually all our plastics, detergents

and commercial alcohols are made from products of
this process.
 In order to separate the different length chains in the

crude mix, it is heated to a very high temperature.
 The temperature cannot be set higher than this as there

is a risk that the lighter fractions will ignite.

 Distillation is the most common form of separation technology used in
petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants, natural gas
processing.
 Industrial distillation is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical
columns known as "distillation or fractionation towers" or "distillation
columns" with diameters ranging from about 65 centimetres to 6 metres
and heights ranging from about 6 metres to 60 metres or more.
 The distillation towers have liquid outlets at intervals up the column which
allow for the withdrawal of different fractions or products having different
boiling points or boiling ranges.
 By increasing the temperature of the product inside the columns, the
different hydrocarbons are separated.
 The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the
top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest
boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column.

Industrial Distillation Of Crude Oil

Fractional Distillation

Major products of oil refineries
1. Liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
2. Gasoline (also known as petrol)
3. Naphtha
4. Kerosene and related jet aircraft
fuels
5. Diesel fuel
6. Fuel oils
7. Lubricating oils
8. Asphalt and Tar
9. Petroleum coke
27
Fractional distillation is used in oil refineries to separate crude oil into useful
substances (or fractions) having different hydrocarbons of different boiling points



Asphalt
The products refined from the liquid fractions of crude oil
can be placed into ten main categories
Asphalt
 Asphalt is commonly used to make roads.
 It is a colloid of asphaltenes and maltenes that is separated from the other
components of crude oil by fractional distillation.
 Once asphalt is collected, it is processed in a de-asphalting unit, and then goes
through a process called “blowing” where it is reacted with oxygen to make it
harden.
 Asphalt is usually stored and transported at around 150 C.

Diesel and Fuel Oil
Diesel
Diesel is any fuel that can be used in a diesel engine.

Diesel is produced by fractional distillation between 250°
Fahrenheit and 350° Fahrenheit.
Diesel has a higher density than gasoline and is simpler to refine
from crude oil.
It is most commonly used in transportation.
Fuel Oil
Fuel oil is any liquid petroleum product that is burned in a furnace
to generate heat.
Fuel oil is also the heaviest commercial fuel that is produced from
crude oil.

GASOLINE
 Gasoline is an extremely flammable fuel source for
automobiles and other vehicles and equipment.
 A liquid, it can be colorless, pale brown or pale

pink.
 Gasoline is not a single substance.
 There is no such thing as pure gasoline.
 Gasoline is produced by refining petroleum, and it

consists of a complex mixture of over 120
hydrocarbons.
34
Gasoline and Kerosene
Gasoline
 It is mainly used as fuel in internal combustion engines, like the engines in cars.
 Gasoline is a mixture of paraffins, naphthenes, and olefins, although the specific
ratios of these parts depends on the refinery where the crude oil is processed.
 Gasoline refined beyond fractional distillation is often enhanced with iso-octane
and ethanol so that it is usable in cars.
 Gasoline is called different things in different parts of the world.
 Some of these names are: petrol, petroleum spirit, gas, petrogasoline, and
mogas.
Kerosene
Kerosene is collected through fractional distillation at temperatures between 150°

Fahrenheit and 275° Fahrenheit.
It is a combustible liquid that is thin and clear.
Kerosene is most commonly used as jet fuel and as heating fuel.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas and Kerosene
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
 Liquefied petroleum gas is a mixture of gases that are most often used in
heating appliances, aerosol propellants, and refrigerants.
 Different kinds of liquefied petroleum gas, or LPG, are propane and
butane.
 At normal atmospheric pressure, liquefied petroleum gas will evaporate,
so it needs to be contained in pressurized steel bottles.
Lubricating Oil
 Lubricating oils consist of base oils and additives.

 Different lubricating oils are classified as paraffinic, naphthenic, or
aromatic. Lubricating oils are used between two surfaces to reduce
friction and wear.
 The most commonly-known lubricating oil is motor oil, which protects
moving parts inside an internal combustion engine.
36
Paraffin Wax and Bitumen
Paraffin Wax
 Paraffin wax is a white, odorless, tasteless, waxy solid at room temperature.
 The melting point of paraffin wax is between 47° C and 65° C, depending on
other factors.
 It is an excellent electrical insulator, second only to Teflon®, a specialized
product of petroleum.
 Paraffin wax is used in drywall to insulate buildings. It is also an acceptable wax
used to make candles.
Bitumen
 Bitumen, commonly known as tar, is a thick, black, sticky material.
 Refined bitumen is the bottom fraction obtained by the fractional distillation of
crude oil.
 This means that the boiling point of bitumen is very high, so it does not rise in
the distillation chamber. The boiling point of bitumen is 525° C.
 Bitumen is used in paving roads and waterproofing roofs and boats. Bitumen is
also made into thin plates and used to sound proof dish washers and hard
drives in computers.

Fractional Distillation
Why do these fractions condense
over a boiling range?
c Fuel gas
o
Fraction Boiling Range (oC) Petroleum
o
l
Fuel gas Below 40 Kerosene
Petrol 40 - 175
Diesel
Kerosene 150 - 240
Diesel 220 – 275 Lub. Oil
Lubricating oil 250-350
h
o
Bitumen >350 t Bitumen

Uses of each fraction
Burned in the refinery to fuel the distillation process, sold
Fuel gas as LPG, purified and sold as bottled camping gas
Petrol Fuel for cars and motorcycles, also used to make chemicals.
/ gasoline
Naphtha Used to make chemicals used everwhere.
Paraffin / Fuel for green house heaters and jet engines, manufacture of
Kerosine chemicals.
Diesel fuel Fuel for lorries and trains.

Fuel and
Fuel for the heating systems of large buildings, fuel for
lubricating ships, lubricating oil.
oil
Bitumen Roofing, and road surfaces.

The boiling points of molecules
In general, the bigger the molecule the higher the boiling
point.
350
300
250 
200 B.Pt
(oC)
150
100
50 No. Carbon atoms 
0
0 5 10 15 20

boiling ranges
Here are the boiling ranges of some fractions obtained from
distillation of petroleum.
Fraction Boiling Number of

Range carbons
(oC)
Fuel gas Below 40 1-5
Petrol 40 - 175 5-10
Kerosine 150 - 240 9-14
Diesel 220 - 275 13-17

What is Bitumen?
 In North America, bitumen is commonly known as
“asphalt cement” or “asphalt binder.”
 Asphalt pavement is a mixture of about 5 percent
bitumen (asphalt cement) and 95 percent small stones,
sand, and gravel.
 Bitumen (asphalt cement) is produced by distillation of
crude oil during petroleum refining.
 It also occurs naturally.
 Bitumen can be divided into broad categories based on
physical properties and specifications for different uses.
 Straight-run bitumen is used in paving
 Oxidized bitumen is used in roofing
4
2
What is Coal Tar?
 Coal is a fossil fuel mined from ancient deposits.
 It is a black mineral of plant origin which is chemically, a
complex mixture of elemental carbon, compounds of
carbon containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
sulphur.
 Coal is believed to have been formed about 300 million
years ago under the Earth by a process called
carbonization.
 Carbonization is the process of slow conversion of
vegetable matter to coal under the Earth due to the
action of high pressure, high temperature, anaerobic
bacteria and absence of oxygen.

Formation of coal in flow diagram

Types of coal
 Depending upon the extent of carbonization, coal can be
classified into four types as follows:
 Classification of coal
 Peat 11% ,
 Lignite 38% (Soft coal / brown coal)
 Bituminous 65% (Household coal)
 Anthracite 96% (Hard coal)
 Peat is the first stage in the conversion of vegetable
matter to coal while anthracite is the last.

Distillation or Destructive distillation of coal ?
The process of heating coal in the absence of oxygen to

obtain useful products is called destructive distillation of coal

Products formed and their uses
Product Formed/collected in Uses
Can be distilled to obtain:

Bottom of the test tube B. Benzene — solvent Toluene —
Coal Tar (complex mixture of
Liquid residue insoluble in manufacture of explosive
carbon compounds)
water TNT Naphthalene — insect
repellent
Combustible gas insoluble in

Coal gas (CH4+CO+H2) water. Escapes through the Industrial fuel
side tube
Soluble in water present in Manufacture of nitrogenous

Liquor ammonia (NH4OH)
test tube fertilizers
i) Reducing agent in
metallurgy
Solid residue left behind in
Coke (98%C) ii) Manufacture of water gas
test tube A
and producer gas — Industrial
fuel

Comparison between Asphalt and Tar
SIMILARITIES:
1. Composed principally of Bitumen.
2. Black or dark brown in color.
3. Cementitious.
4. Water repellent.
DIFFERENCES:
1. Distinguished by odor (tar has an aromatic odor).
2. The insoluble portion in natural asphalt is mineral matter, while the insoluble
in tar is free carbon.
3. Tar molecules tend to be aromatic (ring or cyclic), while asphalt molecules
tend to be aliphatic (straight chain)
4. Tar is more temperature susceptible
5. Tar can coat aggregates better and is more water resistant.
6. Asphalt is more weather resistant.
7. Asphalt can occur in natural form or come as a by-product of petroleum
refinery. Tar does not occur in natural form, but comes as a by-product in the
manufacture of coke or water-gas.
8. Fumes from heated tar cause health hazards such as severe eye and skin
irritation.
CE 2020: Construction Materials Dr. B. Munwar Basha IIT Hyderabad 48
Comparison between Asphalt and Tar
Tar
Bituminous

The composition of bitumen
 Bitumen is a complex combination of hydrocarbons with small quantities of sulphur,
oxygen, nitrogen and trace quantities of metals such as vanadium, nickel, iron,
magnesium and calcium.
 Crude oils normally contain small quantities of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), a portion of which end up in bitumen.
 Although some of these PAHs are suspected of causing cancer in humans, the
concentrations are extremely low and no causal link to cancer in humans has been
established.
 Most bitumens manufactured from a range of crude oils contain:
Carbon 82 - 88%
Hydrogen 8 - 11%
Sulphur 0 - 6%
Oxygen 0 - 1.5%
Nitrogen 0 - 1%
Broad chemical components of bitumen
 It is convenient to separate bitumen into two broad chemical groups, called asphaltenes
and maltenes
 Maltenes are further subdivided into saturates, aromatics and resins

Asphaltenes
 Asphaltenes are fairly high molecular weight, n-heptane insoluble
solids that are black and glassy.
 They make up 5 - 25% of the bitumen, and contain carbon,
hydrogen, some nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen.
 The asphaltenes content has a significant influence on the
rheological properties of the bitumen.
 Increasing the asphaltenes content produces a harder, more
viscous binder.

Resins
 Resins are largely composed of hydrogen and carbon, with small
amounts of oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen, making up 30 - 50% of
the total bitumen.
 These dark brown solids or semi-solids act as a dispersing (peptising)
agent for the asphaltenes.
 Being polar in nature, they are strongly adhesive.
 The properties of resins characterise to a degree the type of bitumen,
i.e. "solution" (SOL) or "gelatinous" (GEL) (see Bitumen structure.)

Aromatics
 Aromatics are dark brown, low molecular weight, viscous fluids
making up 40 - 65% of the total bitumen, and the ability to dissolve
other, high molecular weight hydrocarbons.
 The aromatic content of the bitumen determines to a significant
extent its compatibility with polymers used for modification.

Saturates
 Saturates are straw coloured or white, viscous oils with a molecular

weight similar to that of aromatics.
 They contain both waxy and non-waxy saturates and make up 5 -
20% of the bitumen.

Viscosity of Fluids
 A fluid is defined as a material which will continue to deform with the
application of a shear force. However, different fluids deform at different
rates when the same shear stress (force/area) is applied.
 Viscosity is that property of a real fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance
to shear force.
 For a given fluid the force required varies directly as the rate of deformation.
As the rate of deformation increases the force required also increases.
 The force required to cause the same rate of movement depends on the
nature of the fluid.
 The resistance offered for the same rate of deformation varies directly as the
viscosity of the fluid.
 As viscosity increases the force required to cause the same rate of
deformation increases.

Viscosity of Fluids
Force
Area
F
Stress,  
L A
L
h Strain   
h
d
Shear Rate   
dt

Dynamic Viscosity
Newton’s law of viscosity states that the shear force to be applied for
a deformation rate of (du/dy) over an area A is given by,
Shear stress


SI Unit: Pascal-second
  Slope of line
 1 centi-Poise = milli Pascal-second
Shear rate
where F is the applied force in N, A is area in m2, du/dy is the velocity gradient (or
rate of deformation), 1/s, perpendicular to flow direction, here assumed linear,
and μ is the proportionality constant defined as the dynamic or absolute
viscosity of the fluid.
Dynamic Viscosity
 The dimensions for dynamic viscosity μ can be obtained from the
definition as Ns/m2 or kg/ms.
 The first dimension set is more advantageously used in engineering
problems.
 However, if the dimension of N is substituted, then the second
dimension set, more popularly used by scientists can be obtained.
 The numerical value in both cases will be the same.
N = kg m/s2 ; μ = (kg m/s2) (s/m2) = kg/m/s

The popular unit for viscosity is Poise named in honour
Poise = 0.1 Ns/m2

Centipoise (cP) is also used more frequently as,
cP = 0.001 Ns/m2
Kinematic Viscosity
 The ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density is defined as kinematic
viscosity, ν, having a dimension of m2/s.
 Later it will be seen to relate to momentum transfer.
 Because of this kinematic viscosity is also called momentum
diffusivity.
 The popular unit used is stokes (in honour of the scientist Stokes).
Centistoke is also often used.

1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 10–4 m2/s
of all the fluid properties, viscosity plays a very important role in fluid
flow problems.
The velocity distribution in flow, the flow resistance etc. are directly
controlled by viscosity.

Typical Viscosities (Pa.s)
 Asphalt Binder --------------- 100,000

 Polymer Melt ----------------- 1,000
 Molasses ---------------------- 100
 Liquid Honey ----------------- 10
 Glycerol ----------------------- 1
 Olive Oil ----------------------- 0.01
 Water -------------------------- 0.001
 Acetic Acid -------------------- 0.00001
Courtesy: TA Instruments

Newtonian Fluids
• Fluids of the most commonly
encountered in fluid engineering are Shear stress
water and air, and also, include

structurally simple fluids with low
molecular weight, are found to obey Shear rate
“Newton’s law of viscosity”.

Examples:
• Such fluids are referred to as
Newtonian fluids. • Water
• The Newton’s law of viscosity • Milk
states that the shearing force is • Vegetable oils
proportional to the shear rates
• Fruit juices
• Sugar and salt solutions

Different types of Fluids
Shear stress
Non Newtonian
Fluids Shear rate

Non-Newtonian Foods
 In a general sense, fluids that exhibit characters not predicted by the Newtonian
constitutive equation (linear) are non-Newtonian.
 The exceptions to the Newtonian fluids are not of rare occurrence, and in fact
many common fluids are non-Newtonian.
 Some examples are: paints, solutions of various polymers and molten plastics;
food products such as apple sauce, ketchup and other mammalian whole foods;
synovial fluid found in joints, blood and other organic fluids; many solid-liquid
and liquid-liquid suspensions such as fibers in a liquid paper pulp, coal slurries,
emulsions of water in oil or oil in water, and so on.
 The so-called non-Newtonian fluids, as mentioned above, are often found in
many fields of engineering fluid mechanics as well as in bio-medical fields, and
exhibit interesting, useful and even exciting characteristics differed from those
found in Newtonian fluids.

Bitumen Structures
 The molecules in the bitumen further fall into two functional
categories - polar and non-polar molecules:
1. Polar molecules form the network of the bitumen and provide
the elastic properties;
2. Non-polar molecules provide the body of the bitumen and its
viscous properties.
 These two categories of molecules co-exist, forming a homogeneous
mixture.
 Their weak interaction results in the Newtonian behaviour of
bitumen at high temperatures, where the viscosity change is directly
proportional to the temperature change.

"solution" type (SOL) bitumen
 In the presence of sufficient quantities of resins and aromatics of adequate
solvating capacity, the asphaltenes are fully dispersed, or peptised, and the
resulting micelles have good mobility within the bitumen.
 In such cases the bitumen is known as a "solution" type (SOL) bitumen as
shown in Figure 6.

"solution" type (SOL) bitumen
 If the aromatic or resin fraction is not present in sufficient quantities to peptise
the micelles, or has insufficient solvating capacity, the micelles can associate
together.
 This leads to structures of linked micelles, and these types of bitumen are known
as "gelatinous" (GEL) types and are depicted in the Figure.

Temperature
 Bitumen is a thermoplastic hydrocarbon material which
softens when heated and turns into a glassy state when
cooled.
 The following states generally describe the consistency of
bitumen at various temperatures:
 At low road temperatures - a brittle solid;

 At room temperature - a sticky semi-solid;
 At high service temperatures - a viscoelastic substance;
1
 At elevated temperatures - a viscous liquid.

Viscoelastic properties
 Bitumen displays both elastic and viscous behaviour, depending
largely on temperature and load duration.
 This viscoelastic character of bitumen results in its varied response
behaviour under varied loading times and temperatures changes.
Elastic behavior
At low temperature and short duration loads:
 Bitumen tends to act as an elastic solid, returning to its original
 position after removal of the load;
 Excessively low temperature in conjunction with rapid loading
may cause brittle failure and cracking;
 Prolonged low temperature can cause a build-up of internal
stress resulting in cracking.

 Bitumen displays both elastic and viscous
behaviour, depending largely on temperature
and load duration.
 This viscoelastic character of bitumen results in
its varied response behaviour under varied
loading times and temperatures changes.
Viscous behavior
At elevated temperature and long duration
loads:
 Bitumen acts as a viscous fluid - i.e. it
undergoes plastic deformation that is
not recovered
 Flow takes place as adjacent molecules
flow past each other
 The force resisting this flow is related
to the relative velocity of sliding

 Many materials display time dependence in their

elastic response
 gum
 bread dough
 cheese
 Viscoelastic materials possess both elastic and flow
characteristics


Elastic Material
 Consider a material placed under a weight. A
constant stress is applied, and we measure how the
strain (∆h/h) changes with time
∆ h
O r ig in a l
h
C o m p re s s e d

Elastic Material
 Elastic Material
force removed
F
∆h ∆h
Instantaneous Instantaneous
elastic elastic
Or ig in a l deformation recovery
h
Co m p re s s e d
Time
force applied

Viscoelastic Material
force removed
F retarded
∆h deformation Instantaneous
(creep) elastic
recovery
h
Or ig i n al ∆h
Compressed retarded
recovery
Instantaneous
elastic
deformation permanent deformation
force applied
Time

Viscoelastic Material
 Unlike purely elastic substances, a viscoelastic substance has an elastic
component and a viscous component.
 The viscosity of a viscoelastic substance gives the substance a strain rate
dependent on time. Purely elastic materials do not dissipate energy (heat)
when a load is applied, then removed.
 However, a viscoelastic substance loses energy when a load is applied,
then removed.
 Hysteresis is observed in the stress-strain curve, with the area of the
loop being equal to the energy lost during the loading cycle.
 Since viscosity is the resistance to thermally activated plastic
deformation, a viscous material will lose energy through a loading cycle.
 Plastic deformation results in lost energy, which is uncharacteristic of a
purely elastic material's reaction to a loading cycle.
 Specifically, viscoelasticity is a molecular rearrangement.
 When a stress is applied to a viscoelastic material such as a polymer,
parts of the long polymer chain change position.

Rheology of Bitumen

What is Rheology of Bitumen?
 Study of flow and deformation behavior of Bitumen

 Rheology is the science of the flow and deformation of fluids
and constitutes a fundamental engineering property of bitumen.
The rheological properties of bitumen are influenced by both its
temperature and chemical composition and the structure - or
physical arrangement - of the molecules

Elastic Response

Viscous Response

Maxwell Model

Kelvin-Voigt Model

Combination of Maxwell and Kelvin-Voigt

Burger’s Model
Burger's model is often used to characterize the response of
bitumen to imposed stresses.
A spring and dashpot in series (Maxwell model);
Spring and dashpot in parallel (Kelvin-Voigt model).
o

Burger’s Model

Burgers Model

Low temperature and short duration loading
 At low temperatures and/or high frequency (short

duration) loads, bitumen tends to act as an elastic solid,
returning to its original position after removal of the load.
 This almost purely elastic behavior can be represented by
a simplified Burger's model as a spring in series with the
Kelvin-Voigt model or even a spring only.
 Excessively low temperatures in conjunction with rapid
loading may cause brittle failure and cracking. Prolonged
low temperatures can also cause a build-up of internal
stresses in the bitumen, resulting in cracking as it interacts
with the rest of the pavement structure.

High temperature and long duration loading
 At elevated temperatures and/or low frequency (prolonged
duration) loads, bitumen acts as a viscous fluid.
 It will undergo plastic deformation i.e. the deformation is not
reversible.
 Flow takes place as adjacent molecules slide past each other, the
resulting friction or resistive force being related to the relative
velocity of sliding.
 The relationship of this resistive force and the relative velocity (of
sliding) is termed "viscosity".
 Under conditions of elevated temperature, pavements bound with
bitumen will tend to rut under repeated applications of wheel loads,
and the rutting will occur at a rate dependent on the temperature
and rate of loading.
 This plastic behavior of the bitumen at high temperatures can be
offset by the interlocking action of the aggregate, which serves to
resist permanent deformation.
Intermediate temperature behavior
 At intermediate temperatures bitumen displays both elastic and
viscous behaviour as represented in the Burger's model.
 After an instantaneous elastic response, a gradual increase in strain
with time takes place until the load is removed.
 The change in strain with time is caused by the viscous behaviour
of the material.
 On removal of the load, the elastic strain is recovered
instantaneously and some additional recovery occurs with time -
known as delayed elasticity.
 Ultimately a permanent residual strain remains, i.e. rutting, which is
irrecoverable and is directly caused by viscous behaviour.

Response of asphalt in a simple creep test

Advantages of the viscoelastic behaviour of bitumen
 The most common state of bitumen is viscoelastic, enabling it to
exhibit the advantageous properties of both elastic and plastic
materials;
 As a binder it provides excellent adhesive properties with mineral
aggregates;
 Bitumen acts as a lubricant when heated, thereby facilitating
spraying, coating of aggregates during hot mix manufacture, as well
as compaction during laying;
 Bitumen cools to become a glue, forming part of the solid matrix.
With a binder well-matched to the loading and temperature conditions,

the most common response is elastic or viscoelastic, with only a
limited plastic behavior.

Cutback Bitumen
 Cutback bitumen is a blend of penetration grade bitumen and petroleum
 solvents.
 The choice of solvent determines the rate at which the bitumen
 will "set up" or cure when exposed to air.
 A rapid-curing (RC) solvent will evaporate more quickly than a medium-curing (MC)
solvent.
 The viscosity of the cutback bitumen is determined by the proportion of solvent
added - the higher the proportion of solvent, the lower is the viscosity of the
cutback.
 The solvent used in cutback bitumen is sometimes also referred to as the "cutter" or
"flux".
 When the solvent has evaporated, the binder reverts to the original penetration
grade.
 The advantage of cutback bitumen is that it can be applied at lower temperatures
than penetration grades because of its lower Bitumen Solvents viscosity. A
disadvantage is that cutback bitumen consumes non renewable energy resources
which are ultimately lost through evaporation.

Creep
 Creep: deformation that occurs over period of time

when a material is subjected to a constant stress (at
constant temperature)

 Elastic Material: stress increases immediately with strain
and remains constant
 Newtonian Fluid: stresses increases with application of
strain, quickly declines to zero
 Viscoelastic material: stress increases immediately, declines
gradually over time.
 viscoelatic solid-decline is gradual and levels off at e
 viscoelatic liquid, stress declines rapidly and goes to zero

To illustrate how viscoelastic materials respond to applied loads
it is common practice to represent material behaviour by a
system of springs to simulate the elastic components, and
dashpots to simulate the viscous behaviour as follows:
• Spring:
1. Elastic deformation;
o
2. Not time dependent;

o
3. No permanent deformation.
o
• Dashpot:
Viscous deformation;
o
Time dependent;
o
Some permanent deformation.

o
• Spring-dashpot in parallel
Delayed elastic deformation;
Time dependent;
No permanent deformation.
o

Elastic Response

Viscous Response

Maxwell Model

Bitumen plays a vital role in road construction typically as binder.
Application condition requires bitumen to behave as mobile liquid.

There are three ways to reduce its viscosity:
•Heat it
•Dissolve it in solvents
•Emulsify it.
In heating it involves some:

•Energetic
•Environmental and
•Health problems
As process is inefficient and involves
Loss of heat and even fumes causing
air pollution
In case using solvents:

We make use of volatile dilatants like kerosene petroleum which adds to its cost although viscosity
get reduced as it is uneconomical.
102

Types and grades of bituminous binders
Penetration grade bitumen
Penetration grade bitumen can be manufactured by

straight-run distillation or by blending two base
components (one hard such as 35/50 pen and the
other soft such as 150/200 pen).
Penetration grade bitumen is used either as a primary
binder or base bitumen for the manufacture of:
1. Cutback bitumen;
2. Modified binders;
3. Bitumen emulsions.
CE 2020: Construction Materials Dr. B. Munwar Basha 103IIT Hyderabad

Cutback Bitumen
 Cutback bitumen is a blend of penetration grade bitumen and petroleum
 solvents.
 The choice of solvent determines the rate at which the bitumen
 will "set up" or cure when exposed to air.
 A rapid-curing (RC) solvent will evaporate more quickly than a medium-curing (MC)
solvent.
 The viscosity of the cutback bitumen is determined by the proportion of solvent
added - the higher the proportion of solvent, the lower is the viscosity of the
cutback.
 The solvent used in cutback bitumen is sometimes also referred to as the "cutter" or
"flux".

Polymer modified bitumen
 The rheological properties of conventional binders may be modified
by the introduction of:
• Elastomers;
• Plastomers;
• Crumb rubber;
• Hydrocarbons.
 Modification is costly and is normally justified when bituminous
surfacings are subjected to severe conditions such as:
• Steep gradients;
• Very high road surface temperature;
• High traffic loading; or
• Heavily trafficked intersections.
 Modification may also be advantageous for surfacings on highly
flexible and cracked pavements, where an improvement in the
rheological properties of the bitumen is required.
 Use in such applications should be guided by expert opinion.
 In addition to the primary aims above, the range of
properties improved include
1. Durability;
2. Aggregate retention;
3. Resistance to permanent deformation;
4. Resistance to fatigue cracking;
5. Cohesion (internal strength);
6. Elasticity;
7. Viscosity less susceptible to temperature changes.
8. Modification agents

 The primary aim of the modification of bitumen for use in structural
layers is to increase the resistance of these layers to permanent
deformation at high road temperatures without compromising the
properties of these layers over the rest of the prevailing temperature
range.
 The use of polymer modified bitumen to obtain improved
performance is rising as a result of increases in tyre pressures, axle
loads and higher traffic volumes.
 Improved performance can be achieved in two ways, both of which
are aimed at reducing the permanent strain:
1. An increase in the elastic component with an associated reduction
in the viscous component; and
2. Stiffening of the bitumen to reduce the total viscoelastic response
of the layer.

Modification is achieved by the introduction
of polymers (including crumb rubber),
aliphatic synthetic wax or naturally
occurring hydrocarbons.
Polymers can be broadly categorized as
"elastomers" (sometimes referred to as
thermoplastic elastomers) for improving the
strength and elastic properties of a binder,
and "plastomers" (sometimes referred to as
thermoplastic polymers) for increasing the
viscosity of the bitumen.

Types and varieties of Modifiers

Bitumen Additives
A number of bitumen additives are employed, particularly in asphalt. These additives
are not intended to modify or improve the rheological properties of bitumen; rather the
intention is to improve certain performance characteristics to extend the service life of
the asphalt.

What are emulsions?
An emulsion is a dispersion Of small droplets of one liquid in

another liquid.
Emulsions can be formed by any two immiscible liquids, but in

most emulsions one of the phases is water.
Oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions are those in which the continuous

phase is water and the disperse (Droplet) phase is an “oily” liquid.
Water-in-oil (W/O) “inverted” emulsions are those in which the

continuous phase is an oil and the disperse phase is water.

Types of emulsions:
(a) O/W emulsion,

(b) W/O emulsion,
(c) multiple W/O/W.

BITUMEN EMULSION
Bitumen Emulsion is a 2-phase system consisting of
• Bitumen
• Water
• Other Additives
• The bitumen is dispersed throughout the water phase in form of

discrete globules, held in suspension by electrostatic charges
stabilized by emulsifier
• The Emulsion contains 40-75% of bitumen,.1-2.5% emulsifier,
25-60% water and other ingredients Typically of 0.1 – 50 µm in
diameter.
• It is mainly dark brown in color after breaking changes to black.

WHY BITUMEN EMULSIONS ?
 Primary objective is to use for road surfacing without much

heating.
 As main advantages this improves the handling of bitumen at
room temperature.
 Promotes surface interactions .
 Its mixture with the aggregate attains full strength.
 Economical and saves energy .
 Reduced atmosphere pollution.
 Water can also added before use to dilute as per requirement.
 Rains can not effect it at the time of use and after use.

Types
Bitumen emulsions can be divided into four classes:

1) Cationic emulsions.
2) Anionic emulsions.
3) Non-ionic emulsions.
4) Clay-stabilized emulsions.
 The first two are most widely used

Cationic emulsions
 If an electric potential is supplied between two
electrodes immersed in an emulsion containing
positively charged particles of bitumen, they will
migrate to the cathode.
 This emulsion is said to be cationic.

Anionic emulsions
 If an electric potential is supplied between two
electrodes immersed in an emulsion containing
negatively charged particles of bitumen, they will
migrate to the anode.
 This emulsion is said to be anionic.

Non-ionic emulsions
 If the bitumen particles in the emulsion are neutral,

then they will not migrate to any of the pole.
 These type of emulsions are NON-IONIC.
 Mainly used in road ways.

Clay-stabilized emulsions
 These are mainly used for industrial applications.

 In these materials, emulsifiers are fine powders,
often natural or processed clays and bentonites.
 Particle size is very much less when compared with
the bitumen particles in emulsions.

Manufacture of Bitumen emulsions
 Bitumen emulsions can be manufactured using batch process or
continuous process.
 Bitumen emulsions are made in continuous inline processes
involving dispersing technologies like rotor stators, colloidal mills
and static mixers.
 High shearing forces are required for producing emulsions.
 Colloidal mills contain high speed rotors.
 Hot bitumen and emulsifier are fed simultaneously into colloidal
mill.

Manufacturing conditions
 The speed of rotors is in the range of 1000-6000
revs/min.
 Bitumen is generally heated to temperature of 100-

140 degree Celsius.
 The viscosity of the bitumen is kept less than 2

poise.

Figure 2. Schematic diagram of a bitumen emulsion plant

 As an alternative to colloid mill, a static mixer can be used.
 This contains no moving parts.
 The high shear necessary to produce an emulsion is generated by

pumping the input materials at high speed.

Properties of bitumen emulsion
It is stable under transportation ,storage & application condition.
But it may break soon after application.

It may have low viscosity
It may flow due to irregular spraying but not due to road irregularities
Important properties of Bitumen emulsion:

1. Stability
2. Viscosity
3. Breaking
4. Adhesivity

Emulsion stability
 This property indicates the resistance ability to change properties

over time.
 As stability is very important in storage , transport & use.
 Stable emulsion will change over time slowly.
 Reason for instability can be physical or chemical process.
 As emulsion is a example of colloidal system in non equilibrium
state.
 Emulsion will go through several process like flocculation,
sedimentation, and coalescence leading to instability of emulsion

Emulsion Viscosity
 The viscosity of the bitumen emulsion is important for pumping

and transportation.
 In some applications, for example surface dressing, bitumen
emulsion is sprayed on the road.
 In this case the viscosity is critical.
 As it should be low enough to permit even spraying but at the
same time high enough to prevent run-off, once it is sprayed on
the road.

Emulsion breaking
Bituminous emulsions are designed to “break” deliberately in

contact with moist aggregates, releasing a binder film on and
between the mineral aggregates.
There can be two kind of breaking:

1. Breaking of anionic bitumen emulsions
2. Breaking of cationic bitumen emulsions

Uses of Bitumen emulsion
 Crack Filling: To stop entering water in structural
layer of pavement Bitumen emulsions preferably
containing rubber are used as they are inexpensive
and effective.

Grouting: It is the method of construction or stabilizing of road
surfaces and footpath. Emulsion is applied to compacted dry
aggregate and due its low viscosity it penetrates through void
structure of the aggregate.

 Soil Stabilization: For agricultural land where fresh top
soil is susceptible to surface erosion ,bitumen emulsion
can be used as binding agent also helps in retaining soil
moisture & improving thermal insulation
 Slip layer & concrete curing: Bitumen emulsions are
used to create a membrane between layers of concrete
to retain strength of upper layer by preventing water
seepage into lower layers by avoiding rigid adhesion.
Also it is sprayed on top surface to avoid evaporation of
water.

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