Principles of Measuring Instruments: Lecture Two

Principles of Measuring Instruments
Lecture Two
Presenter: Dr. Kenedy Aliila Greyson

Email: kenedyaliila@yahoo.com
Mobile: +255-654 149 540
+255-745 305 501
Dynamic Characteristics
• Static characteristics are the values given when
steady-state conditions occur, i.e. the values given
when the system or element has settled down after
having received some input.
• The dynamic characteristics refer to the behavior
between the time that the input value changes and the
time that the value given by the system or element
settles down to the steady state value.
2
Electrical systems
• The basic elements of electrical systems are the pure
components of resistor, inductor and capacitor
(Figure).
1. Resistor
For a resistor, resistance R, the potential difference v
across it when there is a current I through it is given
by:
3
2. Inductor
For an inductor, inductance L, the potential
difference v across it at any instant depends on the
rate of change of current i and is:
4
3. Capacitor
For a capacitor, the potential difference v across it
depends on the charge q on the capacitor plates with
v = q/C, where C is the capacitance. Thus:
Since current i is the rate of movement

of charge:
5
Kirchhoff’s Laws Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• The total current flowing into any circuit junction is
equal to the total current leaving that junction, i.e. the
algebraic sum of the currents at a junction is zero.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

• In a closed circuit path, termed a loop, the algebraic
sum of the voltages across the elements that make up
the loop is zero.
6
Example
• Develop a model for the electrical system described
by the circuit shown in Figure. The input is the
voltage v when the switch is closed and the output is
the voltage vc across the capacitor.
Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law
gives:
The relationship between an input v and the

output vc is a first-order differential equation.
7
First-Order Systems
• A first-order system has a differential equation of the
form
where τ is the time constant and k the steady-

state gain.
• The Laplace transform of this equation can be

written as:
Control System Modelling 8

• and so a transfer function of the form:
• When a first-order system is subject to a unit

impulse input then X(s) = 1 and the output transform
Y(s) is

FIGURE First-order system; and pole plot

• Hence, since we have the transform in the form
gives:
The output is an exponential

decay.
Figure : Output with a unit impulse input to a first-order

system
• The output rises to its maximum value at time t = 0
and then after 1τ it drops to 0.37 of the initial value,
after 2τ it is 0.14 of the initial value and after 3τ it is
0.05 of the initial value.
• Thus by about a time equal to 4τ the output is
effectively zero.
• The exponential term tends to a zero value as the time
t tends to an infinite value.

• When a first-order system is subject to a unit step
input then , and the output transform Y(s) is:
Note that,

• Figure shows how the output varies with time.
• Initially, at time t = 0, the output is zero.

• It then rises to 0.63 of the steady-state value after
1τ, then 0.86 of the steady-state value after 2τ and
0.95 of the steady-state value after 3τ.
• After 4τ the output is effectively at the steady-state

value of k, the exponential term in the above
equation becoming zero as time t tends to infinity.

Example
• A circuit has a resistance R in series with a capacitance
C. The differential equation relating the input v and
output vc, i.e. the voltage across the capacitor, is:
Determine the output of the system when there is a 3 V

impulse input.
Solution
As a function of s the differential equation becomes:

• Hence the transfer function is
• The output when there is 3 V impulse input is:

gives:

First-order system parameters
• The following are parameters used to describe the
transient performance of a first-order system while it
is moving towards the steady-state value:
1. Time constant
When the time t = τ then we
Thus, the time constant τ for a first-order system
when subject to a step input is the time taken for the
output to reach 0.63, of the steady-state value.

• The time constant can also be evaluated from the pole
plot .
• We can say the pole is located at the reciprocal of the
time constant, and the farther the pole from the
imaginary axis, the faster the transient response.

2. Delay time
The delay time td is the time required for the output
response to reach 50% of its steady-state value. Thus,
since k is the final value, the time taken to reach 50%
of this value is given by:
= 0.693τ

3. Rise time
The rise time tr, is the time required for the output to
rise from 10% to 90% of its steady-state value. Note
that the specification is not always in terms of 10%
to 90%, sometimes it is 0% to 100%.
Since k is the steady-state value then the time taken
to reach 10% of that value is:

The time taken to reach 90% of the steady-state
value is given by:
• Hence the rise time is:
= 2.2τ

Settling Time, ts
• Settling time is defined as the time for the response to
reach, and stay within, 2% of its final value.
• Letting c(t) = 0.98 in and solving for
time, t, we find the settling time to be

Example
• Determine the delay time and the rise time for a first-
order system with the transfer function:
Comparing the transfer function with

indicates that the steady-state gain is 3 and the time
constant is 2 s.
Thus, the delay time is:
=1.4 s
• the rise time is:

Second-order Systems
• The differential equation for a second-order system is
of the form:
where is the natural angular frequency with

which the system oscillates and is the damping
ratio.
• Hence, for the Laplace transform we have:

and so a transfer function of
• When a second-order system is subject to a unit step

input, i.e. X(s) = 1/s, then the output transform Y(s) is:

• There are three different forms of answer to this
equation for the way the output varies with time;
these depending on the value of the damping constant
and whether it gives an overdamped, critically
damped or under-damped system.
• We can determine the condition for these three forms
of output by putting the equation in the form:
• where p1 and p2 are the roots of the denominator

quadratic term, the so termed characteristic equation:

• Hence, if we use the standard equation to determine
the roots of a quadratic equation, we obtain:
and so the two roots are given by:

• The important issue in determining the form of the
roots is the value of the square root term and this is
determined by the value of the damping factor
1. >1
With the damping factor greater than 1 the
square root term is real and will factorize.
• To find the inverse transform we can either use
partial fractions to break the expression down into
a number of simple fractions.

The output is thus:
• This describes an output which does not oscillate but

dies away with time and thus the system is
overdamped.
• As the time t tends to infinity then the exponential
terms tend to zero and the output becomes the steady
value of
Since the steady-state
value is k.
2. ,
with = 1, from
the square root term is zero and so

both roots are real and both the same.
The output equation
then becomes:

• This equation can be expanded by means of partial
fractions to give:
Hence:
• This is the critically damped condition and describes

an output which does not oscillate but dies away
with time.
terms tend to zero and the output tends to the steady-
state value of k.
3. ,
with C < 1 the square root term does not have a real
value. Using
then gives:

• where This is an under-damped
oscillation. The angular frequency of the damped
oscillation is:
• Only when the damping is very small does the

angular frequency of the oscillation become nearly
the natural angular frequency
term tends to zero and so the output tends to the
value k.

Example
• What will be the state of damping of a system having
the following transfer function and subject to a unit
step input?
• The output Y(s) from such a system is given by:
• For a unit step input and so the output is

given by:

• The roots of are
Both the roots are real and the same and so the system
is critically damped.

Second-order system parameters
• For the under-damped oscillations of a system we
have the output y given by:
with the damped natural frequency given by:
• Since
the sine term can be written as:

and since is a constant:
• where P and Q are constants. Thus the output can be

written as:

Figure: Step response of an under damped system

• The performance of an under-damped second-order
system to a unit step input can be specified by:
1. Rise time
• The rise time tr is the time taken for the response x
to rise from 0 to the steady-state value yss.
This is the time for the oscillating response to
complete a quarter of a cycle, i.e.
Thus:

• We can thus reduce the rise time by increasing the
damped natural frequency, this value being
determined by the undamped natural angular
frequency and the damping factor, i.e.
and so:
• The rise time is sometimes specified as the time taken

for the response to rise from 10% to 90% of the
steady-state value.

2. Peak time
• The peak time tp is the time taken for the response to
rise from 0 to the first peak value. This is the time for
the oscillating response to complete one half-cycle,
i.e. Thus:
and so using:

• When is 1 then the peak time becomes infinite;
this indicates that at critical damping the steady-state
value is never reached but only approached
asymptotically.
3. Overshoot
• The overshoot is the maximum amount by which
the response overshoots the steady-state value and is
thus the amplitude of the first peak.
• The overshoot is often written as a percentage of the
steady-state value.

• The steady-state value is when t tends to infinity and
thus yss = k.
• Since y = 0 when t = 0 then, since e° = 1, then using:
we have:
and so

• The overshoot occurs at and thus:
becomes:
• The overshoot is the difference between the output

at that time and the steady-state value.
• Hence:

• Since then we can write
Expressed as a percentage of yss:
Note that the overshoot does not depend on the natural

frequency of the system but only on the damping factor.
4. Subsidence Ratio
• An indication of how fast oscillations decay is provided
by the subsidence ratio or decrement.
• This is the amplitude of the second overshoot divided by
the amplitude of the first overshoot.
• The first overshoot occurs when we have and so:
The second overshoot occurs when

and so:

• Thus the subsidence ratio is given by:

5. Settling Time
• The settling time ts, is used as a measure of the time
taken for the oscillations to die away.
• It is the time taken for the response to fall within and
remain within some specified percentage of the
steady-state value.
• Thus for the 2% settling time, the amplitude of the
oscillation should fall to be less than 2% of yss.
• We have:

• with and, as derived earlier
in item 3,
• The amplitude of the oscillation is when y
is a maximum value.
• The maximum values occur when is some
multiple of and thus we have and
• For the 2% settling time, the settling time is when
the maximum amplitude is 2% of i.e.
• Thus:
The value of the settling time if

the specified percentage is 2%.
• If the specified percentage is 5% the equation
becomes
6. Number of oscillations to settling time

• The time taken to complete one cycle, i.e. the
periodic time, is where is the frequency, and
since then the time to complete one cycle is
• In a settling time of the number of oscillations that

occur is:

• and thus for a settling time defined for 2% of the
steady-state value:
• Since then:

• In designing a system the following are the typical
points that are considered:
1. For a rapid response, i.e. small rise time, the natural

frequency must be large.
• Figure shows the types of response obtained to a unit
step input to systems having the same damping factor
of 0.2 but different natural angular frequencies.
Figure: Response of a
unit gain second-order
system to a unit step
input, the damping
factor being the same
for both responses
• The response time with the natural angular frequency
of 10 rad/s, damped frequency 9.7 rad/s, is much
higher than that with a natural angular frequency of 1
rad/s, damped frequency 0.97 rad/s.
2. The damping factor is typically in the range 0.4 to

0.8 since smaller values give an excessive
overshoot and a large number of oscillations before
the system settles down.

• Figure shows the effect on the response of a second-
order system of a change of damping factor when the
natural angular frequency remains unchanged.

Example
• The feedback system shown in the figure has the
transfer function of the forward path as
and the transfer function of the feedback path as 1.
What will be the effect on the system response of
changing the gain K?

• The transfer function of the closed-loop system is:
• By comparison with the standard form of the transfer

function for a second-order system,
• we have and Thus the rise time

is given by with and so
is:

• The rise time thus decreases as K increases.
• Thus, increasing the gain decreases the rise time and
so increases the speed of response of the system.
The percentage overshoot is given by:

• Thus, increasing K results in an increase in the
percentage overshoot.
• The 2% settling time is given by:
from
Thus, the settling time is independent of the gain K.

STEADY-STATE ERROR
• Steady-state error is the difference between the input
and the output for a prescribed test input
as t → ∞.
• Evaluating Steady-State Errors
• Let us examine the concept of steady-state errors.
• Test inputs used for steady-state error analysis and

design are:
• Step
• Ramp and
• parabola
1. Step inputs represent constant position and thus are
useful in determining the ability of the control
system to position itself with respect to a stationary
target, such as a satellite in geostationary orbit.
– An antenna position control is an example of a system
that can be tested for accuracy using step inputs.
2. Ramp inputs represent constant-velocity inputs to a
position control system by their linearly increasing
amplitude.
– They can be used to test an ability to follow a linearly
increasing input to track a constant velocity target.
• E.g. , a position control system that tracks a satellite
that moves across the sky at a constant angular
velocity.
• In the figure below, a step input and two possible
outputs are shown.
• Output 1 has zero steady-state error, and output 2 has
a finite steady-state error, e2(∞)

• A similar example is shown in the figure below,
where a ramp input is compared with output 1, which
has zero steady-state error, and output 2, which has a
finite steady-state error, e2(∞), as measured vertically
between the input and output 2 after the transients
have died down.

• Let us now look at the error from the perspective of
the most general block diagram.
• For unity feedback systems, E(s) is as shown in the

figure.

Sources of Steady-State Error
• Many steady-state errors in control systems arise
from nonlinear sources, such as backlash in gears or a
motor that will not move unless the input voltage
exceeds a threshold.
• The steady state errors we study here are errors that
arise from the configuration of the system itself and
the type of applied input.

• Steady-State Error in Terms of T(s)
• Consider the figure above. To find E(s), the error
between the input, R(s), and the output, C(s), we
write
• Although this equation allows us to solve for e(t) at

any time, t, we are interested in the final value of the
error, e(∞) .
• Applying the final value theorem, which allows us to
use the final value of e(t) without taking the inverse
Laplace transform of E(s), and then letting t approach
infinity, we obtain
Substituting yields

• The final value theorem is derived from the Laplace
transform of the derivative. Thus,
• For finite steady-state errors, the final value theorem is

valid only if F(s) has poles only in the left half plane and,
at most, one pole at the origin.
• However, correct results that yield steady-state errors that
are infinite can be obtained if F(s) has more than one pole
at the origin.
• If F(s) has poles in the right half-plane or poles on the
imaginary axis other than at the origin, the final value
theorem is invalid.
PROBLEM:
Find the steady-state error for the system of the
figure below if T(s) =5/(s2 + 7s + 10) and the input is
a unit step.
SOLUTION: From the problem statement, R(s) = 1/s and

T(s) = 5/(s2 + 7s +10).

• Since T(s) is stable and, subsequently, E(s) does not
have right-half-plane poles other than at the origin,
we can apply the final value theorem.
• Substituting
into Eq.
gives e(∞) = 1/2

Steady-State Error in Terms of G(s)
• Many times we have the system configured as a unity
feedback system with a forward transfer function, G(s).
• Although we can find the closed-loop transfer function,
T(s), and then proceed as in the previous subsection,
we find more insight for analysis and design by
expressing the steady-state error in terms of G(s) rather
than T(s).

• Consider the feedback control system shown in
Figure.
• Since the feedback, H(s), equals 1, the system has

unity feedback.
• The implication is that E(s) is actually the error
between the input, R(s), and the output, C(s).

• Thus, if we solve for E(s), we will have an expression
for the error.
We now apply the final value theorem

• Equation
allows us to calculate the steady-state error, e(∞)

given the input, R(s), and the system, G(s).
• We now substitute several inputs for R(s)
Step Input
• R(s) = 1/s, we find

Ramp Input
• R(s) = 1/s2, we obtain
Parabolic Input
• R(s) = 1/s3, we obtain

PROBLEM:
• Find the steady-state errors for inputs of 5u(t), 5tu(t),
and 5t2u(t), to the system shown in figure below. The
function u(t) is the unit step.

SOLUTION:
• First, verify that the closed-loop system is a stable.
• Next, for the input 5u(t), whose Laplace transform is
5/s, the steady-state error will be

• For the input 5tu(t), whose Laplace transform is 5/s2,
the steady-state error

• For the input 5t2u(t), whose Laplace transform is
10/s3, the steady-state error will be

Static Error Constants and System Type
• We continue our focus on unity negative feedback
systems and define parameters that we can use as
steady-state error performance specifications,.
– This is the same as we defined damping ratio, natural
frequency, settling time, percent overshoot, and so on as
performance specifications for the transient response.
• These steady-state error performance specifications

are called static error constants.

Static Error Constants
• In the previous section we derived the following
relationships for steady-state error.
• For a step input, u(t),
• For a ramp input, tu(t),
• For a parabolic input,

• The three terms in the denominator that are taken to
the limit determine the steady-state error.
• We call these limits static error constants or error
coefficients .
• Individually, their names are:
• Position constant (position error coefficient), Kp,
where
• Velocity constant, (velocity error coefficient) Kv,

where
• Acceleration constant, (acceleration error coefficient)
Ka where
• Since the static error constant appears in the
denominator of the steady-state error, the value of the
steady-state error decreases as the static error constant
increases.

Steady-State Error via Static Error Constants
• PROBLEM:
For a system of the given figure, evaluate the static
error constants and find the expected error for the
standard step, ramp, and parabolic inputs.
84
SOLUTION:
• First verify that all closed-loop systems shown are
indeed stable.

• Thus, for a step input,
• For a ramp input,
• For a parabolic input,

System Type
• Let us continue to focus on a unity negative feedback
system.
• The values of the static error constants, again, depend
upon the form of G(s), especially the number of pure
integrations in the forward path.
• Since steady-state errors are dependent upon the
number of integrations in the forward path, we give a
name to this system attribute.

• For the system in the given Figure below, we define
system type to be the value of n in the denominator
or, equivalently, the number of pure integrations in
the forward path.
• Therefore, a system with n = 0 is a Type 0 system.
• If n = 1 or n = 2, the corresponding system is a Type
1 or Type 2 system, respectively.

Steady-State Error for Disturbances
• Feedback control systems are used to compensate for
disturbances or unwanted inputs that enter a system.
• The advantage of using feedback is that regardless of
these disturbances, the system can be designed to
follow the input with small or zero error, as we now
demonstrate.
• Figure shows a feedback control system with a
disturbance, D(s), injected between the controller and
the plant. We now re-derive the expression for steady-
state error with the disturbance included.

Assignment (in group of not more than
two (2)
1. Study the following processing systems. Clearly state, explain and
determine the required measurements in all stages along the processing
system.
a) Leather processing
b) Cashew-nuts processing
c) Yoghurt processing
2. Study the required measuring stages in any of the processes listed in
question one. Choose one stage along the process, design the measuring
instrument and simulate the performance of the measuring instrument of
your choice.
• Submission deadline: Day: Friday, November 23rd, 2018

Time: 12.00 noon,
Format: Both hardcopy and softcopy
Softcopy format: Both in word and pdf files
90
S/N Item Marks
1 Briefly give (in words) the intended task, how it 5
was done and results (not more than 300 words).
2 Introduction (provide knowledge and literature 15
behind the system of your choice).
3 Objective(s) (Clearly state the intention of the 5
work, and what is to be addressed).
4 Methodology (show all design stages, include all 20
necessary sketches and drawings).
5 Provide and discuss all simulation results. 40
6 Conclusion (briefly conclude your work). 5
7 Provide and cite all the references used. 10
91

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Principles of Measuring Instruments

Presenter: Dr. Kenedy Aliila Greyson

Since current i is the rate of movement

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

The relationship between an input v and the

where τ is the time constant and k the steady-

• The Laplace transform of this equation can be

Control System Modelling 8

• When a first-order system is subject to a unit

Control System Modelling 9

Control System Modelling 10

The output is an exponential

Figure : Output with a unit impulse input to a first-order

Control System Modelling 12

• Hence, since we have the transform in the form

Control System Modelling 13

Control System Modelling 14

• After 4τ the output is effectively at the steady-state

Control System Modelling 15

Determine the output of the system when there is a 3 V

Control System Modelling 16

• The output when there is 3 V impulse input is:

• Hence, since we have the transform in the form

Control System Modelling 17

Control System Modelling 18

Control System Modelling 19

Control System Modelling 20

Control System Modelling 21

• Hence the rise time is:

Control System Modelling 22

Control System Modelling 23

Comparing the transfer function with

Control System Modelling 24

where is the natural angular frequency with

Control System Modelling 25

• When a second-order system is subject to a unit step

Control System Modelling 26

• where p1 and p2 are the roots of the denominator

Control System Modelling 27

and so the two roots are given by:

Control System Modelling 28

Control System Modelling 29

• This describes an output which does not oscillate but

the square root term is zero and so

Control System Modelling 31

• This is the critically damped condition and describes

Control System Modelling 33

• Only when the damping is very small does the

Control System Modelling 34

• The output Y(s) from such a system is given by:

• For a unit step input and so the output is

Control System Modelling 35

Control System Modelling 36

with the damped natural frequency given by:

Control System Modelling 37

• where P and Q are constants. Thus the output can be

Control System Modelling 38

Control System Modelling 39

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• The rise time is sometimes specified as the time taken

Control System Modelling 41

Control System Modelling 42