Group theory

1st postulate - combination of any 2 elements, including an element w/

itself, is a member of the group.

2nd postulate - the set of elements of the group contains the identity
element (IA = A)

3rd postulate - for each element A, there is a unique element A' which
is the inverse of A (AA-1 = I)

1
Group theory
Group multiplication tables - example: 2/m

1 Aπ m i

1 1 Aπ m i

Aπ Aπ 1 i m

m m i 1 Aπ

i i m Aπ 1

2
Group theory
Powers:

A1 A2 A3 A4 ……. I (= A0)

Suppose A = Aπ/2

A0 A1 A2 A3

A4 A5 A6 A7 Cyclical group

A8 A9 A10 A11 Infinite?

A12 A13 A14 A15

3
Group theory
Conjugate products:

In general, conjugate products are not =

AB ≠ BA

BA = A-1A(BA) AB = B-1B(AB)
= A-1(AB)A = B-1(BA)B

4
Group theory
Conjugate products:

In general, conjugate products are not =

AB ≠ BA

BA = A-1A(BA) AB = B -1B(AB)
= A-1(AB)A = B -1(AB)B

Thm: Transform of a product by its

1st element is the conjugate product

5
Group theory
Conjugate elements:

If Y = A-1XA then X & Y are conjugate elements

6
Group theory
Conjugate elements:

If Y = A-1XA then X & Y are conjugate elements

Sets of conjugate elements:

Ex - in point group 322, 2-fold axes 120° apart & 3-fold axis

these three 2-fold axes form a set of conjugate elements

wrt the 3-fold axis

7
Group theory
Invariant elements:

If every element of a group transforms a particular element

of that group into itself, then that element is invariant

Ex: 6-fold axis in 6/m

m takes 6 into itself

8
Group theory
Subgroups:

A smaller collection of elements from a group that is

itself a group is a subgroup

Ex: 2/m 1, Aπ, m, i

What are the subgroups?

9
Group theory
Subgroups:

A smaller collection of elements from a group that is

itself a group is a subgroup

Notation:

Group - G subgroup - g

B is an "outside" element - in G, but not in g

11
Group theory
Subgroups:

A smaller collection of elements from a group that is

itself a group is a subgroup

Notation:

Group - G subgroup - g

B is an "outside" element - in G, but not in g

Cosets:
g = a1 a2 …. An

gB = a1 B a2B …. anB
cosets
Bg = Ba1 Ba2 …. BAn

Elements of cosets must be in G 12

Group theory
Subgroups:

Thm: The order of a subgroup is a factor of the order

of the group. (order = # elements in g, or G)

r elements of g: a1 a2 ….. ar

B2 ….. Bq are all outside elements

13
Group theory
Subgroups:

Thm: The order of a subgroup is a factor of the order

of the group. (order = # elements in g, or G)

r elements of g: a1 a2 ….. ar

B2 ….. Bq are all outside elements

Then all elements of G are:

g = a1 a2 ….. ar

B2g = B2a1 B2a2 ….. B2ar

B3g = B3a1 B3a2 ….. B3ar

14
Bqg = Bqa1 Bqa2 ….. Bqar
Group theory
Subgroups:

Thm: The order of a subgroup is a factor of the order

of the group. (order = # elements in g, or G)

Then all elements of G are:

g = a1 a2 ….. ar

B2g = B2a1 B2a2 ….. B2ar

B3g = B3a1 B3a2 ….. B3ar

Bqg = Bqa1 Bqa2 ….. Bqar

qr elements in G q = index of subgroup g 15

Group theory
Subgroups:

Ex: g = 1, i (order 2) G = 1, Aπ, m, i (order 4)

B2 = Aπ B3 = m

16
Group theory
Subgroups:

Ex: g = 1, i (order 2) G = 1, Aπ, m, i (order 4)

B2 = Aπ B3 = m

g = 1 i

B2g = Aπ Aπ i = Aπ m

B3g = m m i = m Aπ

Since B2g = B3g, g is of index 2 only

17
Group theory
Conjugate subgroups:

A in G A-1 g A = h h is also a subgroup

Ex:
622 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 {C6} = G

1, C2 = g A = C2

C2
C2

C2

C2
C2 C2

18
Group theory
Conjugate subgroups:

The set of all conjugate subgroups is called

the complete set of conjugates of g

Ex:
622 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 {C6} = G

1, C2 = g A = C2
C2
C2
1, C2 = g
1, C2 = h1 C2
complete set
of conjugate 1, C2 = h2
C2
subgroups 1, C2 = h3
1, C2 = h4 C2 C2
1, C2 = h5

19
Group theory
Invariant subgroups:

An invariant subgroup is self conjugate

For every B in G

B-1gB = g

gB = Bg

(right & left cosets =)

gB = a1B …….. anB 2 collections of same

Bg = Ba1 …….. Ban set of elements

20
Group theory
Invariant subgroups:

Ex:
2/m G = 1, C2, m, i

g = 1, C2

21
Group theory
Invariant subgroups:

Ex:
2/m G = 1, C2, m, i

g = 1, C2

1 1 1=1

1 C2 1 = C2

m-1 C2 m = C2

i-1 C2 i = C2

22
Group theory
Invariant subgroups:

Every subgroup of index two is invariant

G = g, gB
G = g, Bg

23
Group theory
Invariant subgroups:

Every subgroup of index two is invariant

G = g, gB
G = g, Bg

Ex:
2/m G = 1, C2, m, i g = 1, C2 B=m

G = 1, C2, 1 m, C2 m = 1, C2, m, i

G = 1, C2, m 1, m C2 = 1, C2, m, i

1 m=m 1
m C2 = C2 m

24
Group theory
Group products:

Suppose group g (= a1 …. ar)

B not in g

Thm: if element B of order 2 transforms group g into itself

then elements in g and Bg form a group

g = a1 …. ar
Bg = Ba1 …. Bar

and Bg = gB (g is of order 2)

25
Group theory
Group products:

Suppose group g (= a1 …. ar)

B not in g

Thm: if element B of order 2 transforms group g into itself

then elements in g and Bg form a group

g = a1 …. ar
Bg = Ba1 …. Bar

and Bg = gB (g is of order 2)

Since g is a group, ai aj = ak; ak in g

Then Bai aj = Bak; Bak in Bg

Products for are Bai Baj

ai = Bai B-1 ai B = B ai 26
Group theory
Group products:

Since g is a group, ai aj = ak; ak in g

Then Bai aj = Bak; Bak in Bg

Products for Bg are Bai Baj

ai = Bai B-1 ai B = B ai

Bai Baj = ai B Baj

BB =I since B is of order 2

Bai Baj = ai aj

Since B transforms g into itself, ai is an element in g

Thus Bai Baj with ai aj form a closed set

27
Group theory
Group products:

Identity is in g

Inverses -
an-1 in g
-1 -1 -1
(Ban)-1 = an B-1 = B-1 (an ) = B (an ) in Bg

Therefore
g, Bg is a group

28
Group theory
Group products:

Extended arguments give

Thm: If g & h two groups w/ no common element except I

If each element of h transforms g into itself

Then the set of products of g & h form a group

29