Chapter 15

Statistical
Quality Control
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 Statistical Process
Control
• Take periodic samples from process
• Plot sample points on control chart
• Determine if process
is within limits UCL

• Prevent quality
problems LCL

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 Variation
 Common Causes
Variation inherent in a process
Can be eliminated only through
improvements in the system

 Special Causes
Variation due to identifiable factors
Can be modified through operator or
management action
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 Types of Data
 Attribute data
 Product characteristic
evaluated with a discrete choice
 Good/bad, yes/no
 Variable data
 Product characteristic that
can be measured
 Length, size, weight, height,
time, velocity

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 SPC Applied to
Services
 Nature of defect is different in
services
 Service defect is a failure to meet
customer requirements
 Monitor times, customer
satisfaction

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Service Quality Examples
 Hospitals
Timeliness, responsiveness,
accuracy of lab tests
 Grocery Stores
Check-out time, stocking, cleanliness
 Airlines
Luggage handling, waiting times,
courtesy
 Fast food restaurants
Waiting times, food quality,
cleanliness, employee courtesy
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 Service Quality Examples
 Catalog-order companies
Order accuracy, operator
knowledge and courtesy,
packaging, delivery time,
phone order waiting time
 Insurance companies
Billing accuracy, timeliness of claims
processing, agent availability and
response time

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 Control Charts
 Graph establishing process control
limits
 Charts for variables
Mean (x-bar), Range (R)
 Charts for attributes
p and c

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 Process Control Chart
Upper Out of control
control
limit

Process
average

Lower
control
limit

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number
Figure 15.1
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A Process is In Control if
1. No sample points outside limits
2. Most points near process average
3. About equal number of points
above & below centerline
4. Points appear randomly
distributed

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 Development of
Control Chart
 Based on in-control data
 If non-random causes present
discard data
 Correct control chart limits

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 Control Charts for
Attributes
 p Charts
Calculate percent defectives in sample

 c Charts
Count number of
defects in item

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 p-Chart
UCL = p + zp
LCL = p - zp
where
z = the number of standard deviations from
the process average
p = the sample proportion defective; an
estimate of the process average
p = the standard deviation of the sample
proportion
p(1 - p)
p = n

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The Normal Distribution

95%
99.74%
-3 -2 -1 =0 1 2 3

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Control Chart Z Values

 Smaller Z values make more

sensitive charts
 Z = 3.00 is standard
 Compromise between sensitivity
and errors

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 p-Chart Example
20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans
NUMBER OF PROPORTION
SAMPLE DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE
1 6 .06
2 0 .00
3 4 .04
: : :
: : :
20 18 .18
200
Example 15.1

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 p-Chart Example
20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans
NUMBER OF PROPORTION
SAMPLE DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE
1 6 .06
2 0 .00
total defectives
3 4 p = .04
total sample observations
: : :
: : = 200: / 20(100)
20 18 = 0.10
.18
200
Example 15.1

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 p-Chart Example
20 samples of 100 pairs of jeans
NUMBER OF PROPORTION
SAMPLE DEFECTIVES DEFECTIVE p = 0.10
1 6 .06
2 0 p(1.00
- p) 0.10(1 - 0.10)
UCL = p + z = 0.10 + 3
3 4 .04
n 100
: UCL := 0.190 :
: : p(1 - p): 0.10(1 - 0.10)
20 LCL
18= p - z = 0.10 - 3
n.18 100
200= 0.010
LCL
Example 15.1

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p-Chart 0.20

0.18 UCL = 0.190

0.16

0.14

Proportion defective
0.12

p = 0.10
0.10

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02 LCL = 0.010

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Sample number
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 c-Chart
UCL = c + zc
c = c
LCL = c - zc

where
c = number of defects per sample

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 c-Chart
The number of defects in 15 sample rooms
SAMPLE NUMBER OF DEFECTS
1 12 190
2 8 c= = 12.67
15
3 16
UCL = c + zc
: : = 12.67 + 3 12.67
: : = 23.35
15 15
LCL = c + zc
190 = 12.67 - 3 12.67
= 1.99
Example 15.2
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c-Chart 24
UCL = 23.35
21

18

Number of defects
c = 12.67

15

12

3 LCL = 1.99

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Sample number

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Control Charts for
Variables
 Mean chart ( x -Chart )
Uses average of a sample

 Range chart ( R-Chart )

Uses amount of dispersion in
a sample

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Range ( R- ) Chart
UCL = D4R LCL = D3R

R
R= k

where
R = range of each sample
k = number of samples

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 SAMPLE SIZE FACTOR FOR x-CHART FACTORS FOR R-CHART
n
Range ( R- ) Chart
2
A2

1.88
D3 D4

0.00 3.27
3 1.02 0.00 2.57
4 0.73 0.00 2.28
5 0.58 0.00 2.11
6 0.48 0.00 2.00
7 0.42 0.08 1.92
8 0.37 0.14 1.86
9 0.44 0.18 1.82
10 0.11 0.22 1.78
11 0.99 0.26 1.74
12 0.77 0.28 1.72
13 0.55 0.31 1.69
14 0.44 0.33 1.67
15 0.22 0.35 1.65
16 0.11 0.36 1.64
17 0.00 0.38 1.62
18 0.99 0.39 1.61
19 0.99 0.40 1.61
20 0.88 0.41 1.59

Table 15.1
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 R-Chart Example
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP-RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 5.01 5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
5 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15

Example 15.3
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 R
R-Chart Example
1.15 UCL = D4R = 2.11(0.115) = 0.243
R= = = 0.115
k 10 OBSERVATIONS (SLIP-RING
LCL = D DIAMETER, CM)
3R = 0(0.115) = 0
k –
SAMPLE0.28 1 2 3 4 5 x R
1 5.02 5.01 4.94 4.99 4.96 4.98 0.08
0.24 –
2 5.01
UCL 5.03
= 0.2435.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 0.20 – 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
0.16 –
Range

5 4.95R =4.92
0.115 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 0.12 – 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
7 5.05 5.01 5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
0.08 –
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 0.04 – 5.14 5.10 4.99
LCL = 0 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01
| | 4.98| 5.08
| 5.07
| | 4.99| 5.03
| | 0.10|
0–
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
50.09 91.1510
Sample number
Example 15.3
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x-Chart Calculations
x1 + x2 + ... xk
=
x= k

= =
UCL = x + A2R LCL = x - A2R

where
=
x = the average of the sample means

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 x-Chart Example
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP-RING DIAMETER, CM)
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
=1 x 50.095.01 4.94 4.99
5.02 4.96 4.98 0.08
x= = = 5.01 cm
2 k 10 5.03 5.07 4.95
5.01 4.96 5.00 0.12
3 4.99 5.00 4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
=
UCL5 = x + A2R4.95
= 5.01
4.92+ (0.58)(0.115)
5.03 5.05 5.01= 5.08
4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
LCL7 = x= - A2R5.05
= 5.01
5.01- (0.58)(0.115) = 4.94
5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05 0.11
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
50.09 1.15

Example 15.4
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 x-Chart Example
5.10 –

5.08 –
UCL = 5.08
OBSERVATIONS (SLIP-RING DIAMETER, CM)
5.06 –
SAMPLE k 1 2 3 4 5 x R
=1 x
5.04 – 50.09
x= = 5.02 5.01= 5.01
4.94 4.99
cm 4.96 4.98 0.08
2 k5.02 – 5.0110=5.03 5.07 4.95 4.96 5.00 0.12
Mean

3 4.99 x5.00
= 5.01
4.93 4.92 4.99 4.97 0.08
4 5.00 – 5.03 4.91 5.01 4.98 4.89 4.96 0.14
=
UCL5 = x + A R = 5.01 + (0.58)(0.115) = 5.08
4.98 –2 4.95 4.92 5.03 5.05 5.01 4.99 0.13
6 4.97 5.06 5.06 4.96 5.03 5.01 0.10
LCL7 = x= -4.96
A2–R5.05
= 5.01
5.01- (0.58)(0.115) = 4.94
5.10 4.96 4.99 5.02 0.14
8 5.09 LCL
5.10 5.00 4.99 5.08 5.05
= 4.94 0.11
4.94 –
9 5.14 5.10 4.99 5.08 5.09 5.08 0.15
10 4.92 – 5.01 4.98 5.08 5.07 4.99 5.03 0.10
| | | | | | | | 50.09
| |1.15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Sample number
Example 15.4
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 Using x- and R-Charts
Together
 Each measures the process
differently
 Both process average and variability
must be in control

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 Control Chart Patterns
UCL

UCL

LCL

Sample observations
consistently below the LCL
center line
Sample observations
consistently above the
center line
Figure 15.3
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 Control Chart Patterns
UCL

UCL

LCL

Sample observations
consistently increasing LCL

Sample observations
consistently decreasing
Figure 15.3
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 Zones for Pattern Tests
UCL =
3 sigma = x + A2R
Zone A
= 2
2 sigma = x + 3 (A2R)

Zone B
= 1
1 sigma = x + 3 (A2R)
Zone C
Process =
x
average
Zone C
=
1 sigma = x - 1 (A2R)
3
Zone B
=
2 sigma = x - 2 (A2R)
3
Zone A
=
LCL 3 sigma = x - A2R
| | | | | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Sample number Figure 15.4
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Control Chart Patterns
1. 8 consecutive points on one side of the
center line.
2. 8 consecutive points up or down across
Zones.
3. 14 points alternating up or down.
4. 2 out of 3 consecutive points in Zone A
but still inside the control limits.
5. 4 out of 5 consecutive points in Zone A
or B.

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 Performing a Pattern Test
SAMPLE x ABOVE/BELOW UP/DOWN ZONE

1 4.98 B — B
2 5.00 B U C
3 4.95 B D A
4 4.96 B D A
5 4.99 B U C
6 5.01 — U C
7 5.02 A U C
8 5.05 A U B
9 5.08 A U A
10 5.03 A D B

Example 15.5
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Sample Size Determination

 Attribute control charts

50 to 100 parts in a sample
 Variable control charts
2 to 10 parts in a sample

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 Process Capability
 Range of natural variability in process
 Measured with control charts.
 Process cannot meet specifications if
natural variability exceeds tolerances
 3-sigma quality
 Specifications equal the process control
limits.
 6-sigma quality
 Specifications twice as large as control
limits
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 Process Capability
Design
Specifications

(a) Natural variation

exceeds design
specifications; process
is not capable of
meeting specifications
all the time.
Process
Design
Specifications

(b) Design specifications

and natural variation the
same; process is capable
of meeting specifications
most the time.

Process
Figure 15.5
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 Process Capability
Design
Specifications

(c) Design specifications

greater than natural
variation; process is
capable of always
conforming to
specifications.
Process
Design
Specifications

(d) Specifications greater

than natural variation,
but process off center;
capable but some output
will not meet upper
specification.
Process
Figure 15.5
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Process Capability
Measures
Process Capability Ratio

tolerance range
Cp = process range

upper specification limit -

lower specification limit
=
6

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 Computing Cp
Net weight specification = 9.0 oz  0.5 oz
Process mean = 8.80 oz
Process standard deviation = 0.12 oz

upper specification limit -

lower specification limit
Cp =
6

9.5 - 8.5
= = 1.39
6(0.12)
Example 15.6

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 Process Capability
Measures
Process Capability Index

=
x - lower specification limit
,
3
Cpk = minimum =
upper specification limit - x
3

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 Computing Cpk
Net weight specification = 9.0 oz  0.5 oz
Process mean = 8.80 oz
Process standard deviation = 0.12 oz
=
x - lower specification limit
,
Cpk = minimum 3
=
upper specification limit - x
3

8.80 - 8.50 9.50 - 8.80

= minimum , = 0.83
3(0.12) 3(0.12)
Example 15.7

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