Automotive Safety

Department: Automobile Engineering

Faculty: Mukul Anand
Vehicle Structure Crashworthiness
Crashworthiness is the ability of a structure to protect its occupants during an impact. This is commonly tested when
investigating the safety of aircraft and vehicles. Depending on the nature of the impact and the vehicle involved, different
criteria are used to determine the crashworthiness of the structure. Crashworthiness may be assessed either prospectively,
using computer models (e.g., LS-DYNA, PAM-CRASH, MSC Dytran, MADYMO) or experiments, or retrospectively by analyzing
crash outcomes. Several criteria are used to assess crashworthiness prospectively, including the deformation patterns of the
vehicle structure, the acceleration experienced by the vehicle during an impact, and the probability of injury predicted by
human body models.
Crash Testing
A crash test is a form of destructive testing usually performed
in order to ensure safe design standards in crashworthiness
and crash compatibility for various modes of transportation
or related systems and components.

Types of Crash Testing:

Frontal-impact tests: which is what most people initially think of
when asked about a crash test. Vehicles usually impact a solid concrete wall at a specified speed, but these can also be
vehicle impacting vehicle tests. SUVs have been singled out in these tests for a while, due to the high ride-height that they
often have.

Moderate Overlap tests: in which only part of the front of the car impacts with a barrier (vehicle). These are important, as
impact forces (approximately) remain the same as with a frontal impact test, but a smaller fraction of the car is required to
absorb all of the force. These tests are often realized by cars turning into oncoming traffic. This type of testing is done by the
U.S.A. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS), EuroNCAP, Australasian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP) and
ASEAN NCAP.
 Small Overlap tests: this is where only a small portion of the car's structure strikes an object such as a pole or a tree, or if a
car were to clip another car. This is the most demanding test because it loads the most force onto the structure of the car at
any given speed. These are usually conducted at 15-20% of the front vehicle structure.

Side-impact tests: these forms of accidents have a very significant likelihood of fatality, as cars do not have a significant
crumple zone to absorb the impact forces before an occupant is injured.
Roll-over tests: which tests a car's ability (specifically the pillars holding the roof) to support itself in a dynamic impact. More
recently, dynamic rollover tests have been proposed in lieu of static crush testing (video)

Roadside hardware crash tests: are used to ensure crash barriers and crash cushions will protect vehicle occupants from
roadside hazards, and also to ensure that guard rails, sign posts, light poles and similar appurtenances do not pose an undue
hazard to vehicle occupants.
Old versus new: Often an old and big car against a small and new car,[2][3] or two different generations of the same car
model. These tests are performed to show the advancements in crashworthiness.[citation needed]
Computer model: Because of the cost of full-scale crash tests, engineers often run many simulated crash tests using
computer models to refine their vehicle or barrier designs before conducting live tests.
Sled testing: A cost-effective way of testing components such as airbags and seat belts is conducting sled crash testing. The
two most common types of sled systems are reverse-firing sleds which are fired from a standstill, and decelerating sleds
which are accelerated from a starting point and stopped in the crash area with a hydraulic ram.
Crumples Zone
Crumple zones are designed to absorb the energy from the impact during a traffic collision by controlled deformation
through Crumpling. This energy is much greater than is commonly realized. A 2,000 kg car travelling at 60 km/h (16.7 m/s),
before crashing into a thick concrete wall, is subject to the same
impact force as a front-down drop from a height of 14.2 m crashing
on to a solid concrete surface. Increasing that speed by 50% to
90 km/h (25 m/s) compares to a fall from 32 m - an increase of 125%.
This is because the stored kinetic energy (E) is given by
E = (1/2) mass × speed squared. It increases by the square of the
impact velocity.

Typically, crumple zones are located in the front part of the vehicle, in order to absorb the impact of a head-on collision,
though they may be found on other parts of the vehicle as well. According to a British Motor Insurance Repair Research
Centre study of where on the vehicle impact damage occurs: 65% were front impacts, 25% rear impacts, 5% left side, and
5% right side. Some racing cars use aluminum, composite/carbon fiber honeycomb, or energy absorbing foam to form an
impact attenuator that dissipates crash energy using a much smaller volume and lower weight than road car crumple
zones. Impact attenuators have also been introduced on highway maintenance vehicles in some countries.
Moveable Barrier
The Quick Change Moveable Barrier is an N2, W4 and H2, W6 barrier system for Temporary (Construction) installations.
The system comprises a linked “chain” of reactive tension barrier units which can be raised slightly from the road surface
and moved across the carriageway by a Transfer Vehicle allowing lane priority changes during road works and Traffic Tidal
Flows.
The system allows better phasing of road works and more intensive construction as a result of more construction space
being available, thus improving productivity and better utilization of manpower and plant.

Features
• Increases work area for contractor.
• Barrier can change lanes at up to 10mph several times per day.
• Construction or permanent applications.
• Very low barrier deflection.
• Allows increased traffic flows during peak periods, increased work
area during off peak periods.
Active safety
The term active safety (or primary safety) is used in two distinct ways. The first, mainly in the United States, refers to safety
systems that help avoid accidents, such as good steering and brakes. In this context, passive safety refers to features that
help reduce the effects of an accident, such as seat belts, airbags and strong body structures. This use is essentially
interchangeable with the terms primary and secondary safety that tend to be used in the UK. However, active safety is
increasingly being used to describe systems that use an understanding of the state of the vehicle to both avoid and
minimize the effects of a crash. These include braking systems, like brake assist, traction control systems and electronic
stability control systems, that interpret signals from various sensors to help the driver control the vehicle. Additionally,
forward-looking, sensor-based systems such as Advanced Driver Assistance Systems including adaptive cruise control and
collision warning/avoidance/mitigation systems are also considered as active safety systems under this definition.
Examples of active safety
Good visibility from driver's seat, Low noise level in interior,
Legibility of instrumentation and warning symbols, Early warning of severe braking ahead,
Head up displays, Good chassis balance and handling,
Good grip, Anti-lock braking system,
Electronic Stability Control, Chassis assist,
Intelligent speed adaptation, Brake assist,
Traction control, Collision warning/avoidance,
Adaptive or autonomous cruise control system.((Electronic Brake-force Distribution))
Driving Safety
It is the result of a harmonious chassis and suspension design with regard to wheel suspension, springing, steering and braking, and
is reflected in optimum dynamic vehicle behavior. Safety is something that drivers should keep in mind at all times. After all, when
you are operating a motorized vehicle, you have a responsibility to do your part to keep the roadways safe for yourself, other
drivers, passengers, and others who may be affected by traffic accidents.
• Stay Alert Avoid Assumptions
• Use Turn Signals Buckle Up
• Follow Traffic Signals Respect Yellow Lights
• Come to a Complete Stop Do Not Text and Drive
• Share the Road Never Drive Under the Influence

Conditional Safety
It results from keeping the physiological stress that the vehicle occupants are subjected to by vibration, noise, and climatic
conditions down to as low a level as possible. It is a significant factor in reducing the possibility of misactions in traffic.
Vibrations within a frequency range of 1 to 25 Hz (stuttering, shaking, etc.) induced by wheels and drive components reach
the occupants of the vehicle via the body, seats and steering wheel. The effect of these vibrations is more or less
pronounced, depending upon their direction, amplitude and duration. Noises as acoustical disturbances in and around the
vehicle can come from internal sources (engine, transmission, prop shafts, axles) or external sources (tire/road noises, wind
noises), and are transmitted through the air or the vehicle body. The sound pressure level is measured in dB(A)(see Motor-
vehicle noise measurements and limits). Noise reduction measures are concerned on the one hand with the development
of quiet - running components and the insulation of noise sources (e.g., engine encapsulation), and on the other hand with
noise damping by means of insulating or anti-noise materials. Climatic conditions inside the vehicle are primarily influenced
by air temperature, air humidity, rate of airflow through the passenger compartment and air pressure (see Environmental
stresses for additional information).
Perceptibility safety
• Measures which increase perceptibility safety are concentrated
• Lighting equipment (see Lighting),
• Acoustic warning devices (see Acoustic signaling devices),
• Direct and indirect view (see Main dimensions) (Driver's view: The angle of obscuration caused by the A-pillars for both of
the driver's eyes binocular must not be more than 6 degrees).
Operating safety
Low driver stress, and thus a high degree of driving safety, requires optimum design of the driver surroundings with regard to
ease of operation of the vehicle controls.
Passive safety
Passive safety refers to all design measures taken to protect you and your passengers from injury, or to reduce the risk of
injury. It refers particularly to what happens in the event of a collision and includes the protection of other road users
(partner protection). Besides the seat belt system, the most important passive safety features in our cars include the airbags,
the "deformation-resistant" occupant cell and the front and rear deformation zones. These provide a substantial amount of
protection for you and your passengers by dissipating the impact energy. Taken together with the active safety aspects, all
Volkswagen models offer outstanding all-round protection.
Exterior safety
The term "exterior safety" covers all vehicle-related measures which
are designed to minimize the severity of injury to pedestrians and
bicycle and motorcycle riders struck by the vehicle in an accident.
Those factors which determine exterior safety are:
• Vehicle-body deformation behavior,
• Exterior vehicle body shape.
The primary objective is to design the vehicle such that its exterior
design minimizes the consequences of a primary collision (a collision
involving persons outside the vehicle and the vehicle itself).The most
severe injuries are sustained by passengers who are hit by the front of
the vehicle, whereby the course of the accident greatly depends upon
body size. The consequences of collisions involving two-wheeled
vehicles and passenger cars can only be slightly ameliorated by
passenger-car design due to the two-wheeled vehicle's often
considerable inherent energy component, its high seat position and
the wide dispersion of contact points. Those design features which can
be incorporated into the passenger car are, for example:
• Movable front lamps
• Recessed windshields wipers,
• Recessed drip rails,
• Recessed door handles.
Interior safety
The term "interior safety" covers vehicle measures whose purpose is to
minimize the accelerations and forces acting on the vehicle occupants
in the event of an accident, to provide sufficient survival space, and to
ensure the operability of those vehicle components critical to the
removal of passengers from the vehicle after the accident has
occurred. The determining factors for passenger safety are:
• Deformation behavior (vehicle body),
• Passenger-compartment strength, size of the survival space during
and after impact,
• Restraint systems, Impact areas (vehicle interior),
• Steering system, Occupant extrication,
• Fire protection.
Laws which regulate interior safety (frontal impact) are:
• Protection of vehicle occupants in the event of an accident, in
particular restraint systems
• Windshield mounting
• Penetration of the windshield by vehicle body components
• Parcel-shelf and compartment lids
Seat belt
A seat belt (also known as a seatbelt or safety belt) is a vehicle safety device designed to secure the occupant of a vehicle
against harmful movement that may result during a collision or a sudden stop. A seat belt functions to reduce the likelihood
of death or serious injury in a traffic collision by reducing the force of secondary impacts with interior strike hazards, by
keeping occupants positioned correctly for maximum effectiveness of the airbag (if equipped) and by preventing occupants
being ejected from the vehicle in a crash or if the vehicle rolls over.
Type of Seat Belt
• 2-point
• Lap
• Sash
• 3-point
• Belt-in-Seat (BIS)
• 4-, 5-, and 6-point
• 7-point

2-Point
A 2-point belt attaches at its two endpoints, and was invented in the early 1900s by Jack Swearingen of Louisville, Kentucky.
Lap Belt
A lap belt is a strap that goes over the waist. This was the most commonly installed type of belt prior to legislation requiring
3-point belts, and is primarily found in older cars. Coaches are equipped with lap belts (although many newer coaches have
three-point belts), as are passenger aircraft seats.
Sash
A "sash" or shoulder harness is a strap that goes diagonally over the vehicle occupant's outboard shoulder and is buckled
inboard of his or her lap. The shoulder harness may attach to the lap belt tongue, or it may have a tongue and buckle
completely separate from those of the lap belt. Shoulder harnesses of this separate or semi-separate type were installed in
conjunction with lap belts in the outboard front seating positions of many vehicles in the North American market starting at
the inception of the shoulder belt requirement of the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Federal Motor
Vehicle Safety Standard 208 on 1 January 1968
3-Point
A 3-point belt is a Y-shaped arrangement, similar to the separate lap and sash belts, but unitized. Like the separate lap-and-
sash belt, in a collision the 3-point belt spreads out the energy of the moving body over the chest, pelvis, and shoulders.
Volvo introduced the first production three-point belt in 1959.
Belt-in-Seat (BIS)
The BIS is a three-point harness with the shoulder belt attached to the seat itself, rather than to the vehicle structure. The
first car using this system was the Range Rover Classic. Fitment was standard on the front seats from 1970.[22] Some cars like
the Renault Vel Satis use this system for the front seats.
4-, 5-, and 6-point
Five-point harnesses are typically found in child safety seats and in racing cars. The lap portion is connected to a belt
between the legs and there are two shoulder belts, making a total of five points of attachment to the seat. A 4-point harness
is similar, but without the strap between the legs, while a 6-point harness has two belts between the legs.
7-point
Aerobatic aircraft frequently use a combination harness consisting of a five-point harness with a redundant lap-belt attached
to a different part of the aircraft. While providing redundancy for negative-g manoeuvres (which lift the pilot out of the seat);
they also require the pilot to un-latch two harnesses if it is necessary to parachute from a failed aircraft.
Seat Belt Tightening System
A seat belt pre tensioner is a device that is used to hold a passenger firmly in their seat just before and at the start of a
collision (especially in a front or head on collision) and then allow that passenger to come into contact with the inflated
airbag in a controlled way. This pre tensioner is operated mechanically. It is usually connected to the seat belt buckle
assembly with a long powerful spring that is compressed in a tube and is kept compressed by a latching mechanism. If an
accident occurs the impact causes the latch to release the spring which pulls on the buckle assembly and tightens the seat
belt.
Air Bags
An airbag is a type of vehicle safety device and is an occupant restraint system. The airbag module is designed to inflate
extremely rapidly then quickly deflate during a collision or impact with a surface or a rapid sudden deceleration. It consists of
the airbag cushion, a flexible fabric bag, inflation module and impact sensor. The purpose of the airbag is to provide the
occupants a soft cushioning and restraint during a crash event to prevent any impact or impact-caused injuries between the
flailing occupant and the interior of the vehicle. The airbag provides an energy absorbing surface between the vehicle's
occupant and a steering wheel, instrumental panel, A-B-C- structural body frame pillars, headliner and
windshield/windscreen.
Modern vehicles may contain multiple airbag modules in various configurations including:
• Driver airbag module Passenger airbag module
• Side curtain airbag module Seat-mounted side impact airbag module
• Knee bolster airbag module Inflatable seat-belt modules
• Front Right Side Airbag Sensor Front Left Side Airbag Sensor
• Pedestrian airbag module
Electronic System for Activating Airbag
The most important parts of the success of the airbag system are the crash sensors. These small pieces of electronics are
designed to tell when the vehicle has been damaged in an accident. They respond to several different sets of stimuli,
including sudden stopping, increased pressure as pieces of the car are moved due to the force of the collision, and more.
Different types of sensors measuring wheel speed, seat occupant status, brake pressure and impact, and other vehicle
status indicators are monitored by the airbag control unit located in the front portion of the cabin. The sensors relay signals
to the airbag control unit, which analyzes the data and can orchestrate safety features like seat belt lock, automatic door
locks, as well as airbag deployment. Two types of airbag sensors used in cars are electrical and mechanical. Electrical
sensors vary in design. Some use an electromechanical "ball and tube" mechanism, which basically consists of a small tube
containing a circuit switch and ball that's held together by a small magnet. If a collision occurs, the ball is dislodged from
the magnet and rolls forward in the tube, hitting a switch that completes the electrical circuit. Other electrical designs are
similar in principle, using a metal roller or spring loaded weight instead of a ball, or in newer cars, an accelerometer to trip
the sensor. Mechanical sensors work independent of the electrical system and respond similarly to the electrical sensors,
with a design that actuates a firing pin triggering a small explosion after a crash. Since a mechanical sensor does not require
a power source, it cannot be deactivated like an electrical sensor can when the battery is disconnected.
Collapsible Steering Column
The collapsible steering column is a mechanism containing two interlocking
shafts that collapse in a telescopic fashion when compressed.
At its most basic level, the design of the steering column has remained
unchanged since its inception; the column still consists of a long shaft
connecting the steering wheel to the vehicle’s gearbox. The ‘collapsible’
design introduced an ‘inner’ and ‘outer’ sleeve to the shaft, with a number
of steel bearings pressed in between each sleeve. A strong ‘safety resin’ is
used to bond the bearings to the sleeves. Once a specific level of pressure is
exceeded, the special resin shatters, allowing the sleeves to compress
telescopically.

Tilted Steering Column

Refer to PDF provided.
Collision avoidance system
A collision avoidance system is an automobile safety system designed to reduce
the severity of a collision. It is also known as a precrash system, forward
collision warning system, or collision mitigating system. It uses radar (all-
weather) and sometimes laser (LIDAR) and camera (employing image
recognition) to detect an imminent crash. GPS sensors can detect fixed dangers
such as approaching stop signs through a location database.
Once the detection is done, these systems either provide a warning to the
driver when there is an imminent collision or take action autonomously
without any driver input (by braking or steering or both). Collision avoidance by
braking is appropriate at low vehicle speeds (e.g. below 50 km/h), while collision avoidance by steering is appropriate at
higher vehicle speeds. Cars with collision avoidance may also be equipped with adaptive cruise control, and use the same
forward-looking sensors.
Moving Objects Detection System
By detecting moving objects around the car and alerting the driver, this technology enhances safety when pulling
out of a parking space, helping give drivers better awareness of their surroundings and increased peace of mind.

Technology Functionality
Cameras detect moving objects around
the vehicle when it is in park or slowly
maneuvering; the system then alerts
the driver both visually and audibly.
There are two types of systems: one
uses the Around View Monitor and
four cameras to the front, back and
sides of the car, while the second
system uses only a single camera
installed in the rear of the car.
The four-camera system can alert drivers in three scenarios: while parked or in neutral; moving forward; and backing up.
When moving forward or backing up, the cameras to the front or back respectively detect certain moving objects. When in
park or neutral, the system detects certain moving objects around the car using a virtual bird’s-eye view image. If a vehicle
has the single rear-view camera system it can only detect certain moving objects behind the vehicle
Technology Configuration
The system processes video imagery from the cameras and
can then detect certain moving objects. The version of the
system that uses the Around View Monitor analyzes video
signals in an image-processing unit from the four cameras
attached to the front, rear and both side-view mirrors of the
vehicle. It is then able to detect certain moving objects
around the vehicle in real time. It can determine the three
situations – moving forward, in park or backing up – from
the shift position of the transmission.

NOTE :MOD cannot completely eliminate blind spots and may not detect every
object. It cannot detect stationary objects. Always check surroundings before
moving vehicle. Not a substitute for proper backing procedures. Always turn to

check what is behind you before backing up.

Rear Object Detection Systems
Rear object detection systems monitor a specific area behind a commercial motor vehicle, detect objects, and provide
warnings to drivers when they are approaching an object behind the vehicle while in reverse. These systems assist the driver
in avoiding collisions during backing or parking maneuvers.
Rear object detection systems detect moving and stationary
objects located within a specific area behind a commercial
motor vehicle while it is backing up. Currently available
systems can detect objects within a range of approximately
10 to 20 feet behind a vehicle. They can be integrated with
other sensors, such as side object detection sensors to cover
other blind spot areas around a vehicle. Audible and/or visual
distance-based alerts that vary depending upon the
closeness of the vehicle to an obstacle are the types of warnings that can be provided to a driver through a processing
and/or display unit in the cab. The sensor units located on the back of the vehicle can consist of different types of detection
technology, such as radar or sonar.
Ultrasonic technology or sonar (Sound Navigation And Ranging) determines the range of objects by emitting a transmitter
pulse of ultrasonic energy. The resultant echo is detected by a receiver as it is reflected from the detected object. The
emitter is a membrane that transforms mechanical energy into a chirp (inaudible sound wave) and sends this sound out
toward the target area. When the sound encounters an object, it is reflected back to the receiver circuit that is tuned to the
frequency of the emitter, which then transfers the data to a driver display unit.
Rear Object Detection Systems with Braking
In recent years, there have been proposed and developed various braking control
systems that determine a possibility of collisions based on both a relative distance
between a host vehicle and an object, such as an obstacle in front or back and a
preceding vehicle running ahead of the host vehicle, and a relative velocity of the
host vehicle to the preceding vehicle, for the purpose of automatic activation of a
braking system, collision avoidance, slippage control of steered Wheels, or the like.
Japanese Patent Provisional Publication No. 5-242396 has disclosed an active safety
system which determines that the possibility of a collision is low When a relative
velocity to the preceding vehicle is below a predetermined threshold value and an
acceleration value of a host vehicle is above a predetermined acceleration value, &
thus prevents a braking system from being undesirably activated automatically when
the host vehicle is passing the preceding vehicle. Japanese Patent Provisional
Publication has disclosed a steered-Wheel slippage control system Which reduces a
braking force or sets the braking force to Zero in order to prevent undesirable slippage
of steered road Wheels When the road Wheels are steered during an automatic braking
mode. Japanese Patent Provisional Publication No. 2001-233189 has disclosed an
Automatic preview braking control system capable of generating a minute braking pressure
(that is, pre-application of the brakes) based on a vehicle running state. When an anti-skid braking system (ABS) electronic
control unit (ECU) determines that the preliminary braking pressure application is required as a preview. Assuming that the
possibility of a collision is merely determined based on both a relative velocity of a host vehicle to a preceding vehicle and an
acceleration rate of the host vehicle, there is a possibility that the operating mode of the braking system cannot be shifted to
an automatic braking mode under a particular condition Where the host vehicle is approaching the preceding vehicle due to
driver’s inattentive driving during Which the relative velocity is below the predetermined threshold value and the time rate of
change in the host-vehicle speed exceeds the predetermined acceleration value. On the other hand, in the system that the
braking force is reduced depending on Whether road Wheels are steered, there is an increased tendency for a shift to the
automatic braking mode to be inhibited even during cornering Wherein the automatic braking is required.
It is another object of the invention to provide an automatic braking control system With object detection system interaction,
Which is capable of precisely determining the presence or absence of a river’s intention for obstacle avoidance or a driver’s
intention to pass the preceding vehicle, in other Words, the presence or absence of a driver’s intention for lane-changing, so
as to optimally control a shift to an automatic braking mode and to prevent an undesirable shift to the automatic baking
mode. In order to accomplish the aforementioned and other objects of the present invention, a braking control system With
object detection system interaction comprises a relative-distance detector that detects a relative distance of a frontally
positioned object relative to a host vehicle, a vehicle speed sensor that detects a host vehicle speed of the host vehicle, an
automatic braking control unit configured to be electronically connected to at least the relative-distance detector and the
vehicle speed sensor for automatically controlling, depending on both the relative distance and the host vehicle speed, a
braking force needed for an automatic braking operation Without driver’s braking action When the host vehicle is approaching
the frontally positioned object, the automatic braking control unit comprising a detection section that detects the presence or
absence of a driver’s intention for lane-changing, the automatic braking control unit limiting the automatic braking operation
in the presence of the driver’s intention for lane-changing.
Mirrors Adjustment
Among the personalized settings, the drivers view is one of the most important
features within the car that can more readily assist with the prevention of traffic
accidents. In accordance with this, a set of rules have been defined by the
Transport Authority and they state the following requirements:
1. The car must be equipped with:
• Interior rear view mirror.
• Exterior rear view mirror on the right side of the car.
2. The car must also be equipped with an outside rear view mirror on the left
side if:
• The interior mirror and exterior mirror on the right side of the car does not provide
sufficient view of the rear view.
• The light transmittance in the rear window or the rear side windows are below 70%.

Older vehicles and cars with base trim levels may have manual mirror adjustment. The most
basic method is adjusting the mirror glass directly on the mirror assembly, or it can be
adjusted by a manual cable toggle control. While manual mirrors are not totally extinct,
they are becoming extremely uncommon. Virtually all new vehicles are equipped with power
mirror adjustment. The workings of a power mirror system include:
Side mirror power adjustment motors
Electrical connectors
Mirror switch with directional control
Fused power mirror circuit
Only the side mirrors are controlled by the power mirror switch. The inside rearview
mirror is manual adjustment. The power mirror switch has three positions: left, off,
and right. When the switch is in the center position, neither mirror will be adjusted if
the button is pressed. This is to ensure that the mirrors don’t move if the directional
control button is accidentally hit. The directional control button has four directions
that the mirror motor can move: up, down, right, and left. If the switch is moved to
either the left or right side, that side mirror motor circuit is powered at the switch.
When you press the directional control button on the switch, the mirror motor inside
the mirror housing will pivot the mirror glass to the selected direction. When you release the button, the mirror stops
moving. The mirror motor has a limited amount of travel that is allowed to prevent
damage to the mirror glass. Once the travel limit is reached, the motor will continue
to click and bind until the directional control button is released. Continuing to press
the button when at its limit will cause the mirror motor to burn out eventually, and
it will cease to operate until it is replaced. Making sure your mirrors are adjusted
for proper rear and side-view visibility is extremely important to safely operating
your car. You need to be able to see the traffic beside and behind you to make
informed decisions about your driving. Check your mirror adjustment every time
you start your car to make sure they are positioned properly for you.
Central locking system
The locking system in a vehicle must grant access only to authorized persons. It is the means via
which the vehicle doors and boot lid are locked and unlocked and the engine is started. The
locking system is operated with a key or remote control. In years gone by, purely mechanical
locking systems were the norm. Each door or lid had an independent mechanism which could be
operated from the outside with a key or from the inside with a knob. Central locking systems, for
which pneumatic drives were used originally, brought about significant improvements in comfort
and convenience. These systems feature a built-in vacuum reservoir which triggers the locks on
all doors when the key is turned in a lock. Electric locking systems are commonplace in today's
vehicles. Most of these combine a key with infrared or wireless remote control. This means that
they can be triggered remotely, i.e. without contact between key and vehicle. Today, most vehicle
manufacturers only fit a lock which can be operated with a key in one door, so the car can be unlocked in an
emergency. The very latest systems enable entirely keyless vehicle access. Drivers only need to have the
transmitter in their pockets, for example. The doors are then unlocked when the driver touches a door handle
which has a built-in contact point. The locking system comprises the following components:

Door handle/Handle strip: The door handle is the traditional means by which a vehicle is opened and closed
from inside or outside. The external door strip usually houses the door lock. Door strips are increasingly used
as design elements in modern cars. They can be chrome-plated or paint-finished in the same color as the
Vehicle.

Door lock/Actuator: The latching mechanism in a vehicle is installed directly in its doors. It contains both a latch
and an electric motor (actuator) which controls the central locking. The latch opens or closes the doors,
whereas the door lock locks or unlocks the vehicle. Today, all door latches are powered by electric drives.
Garage door opening System
A garage door opener is a motorized device that opens and closes garage doors. Most
are controlled by switches on the garage wall, as well as by remote controls carried by
the owner. the electric motor does not provide most of the power to move a heavy
garage door. Instead, most of door's weight is offset by the counterbalance springs
attached to the door. (Even manually operated garage doors have counterbalances;
otherwise they would be too heavy for a person to open or close them.) In a typical
design, torsion springs apply torque to a shaft, and that shaft applies a force to the
garage door via steel counterbalance cables. The electric opener provides only a small amount of force to control how far
the door opens and closes. In most cases, the garage door opener also holds the door closed in place of a lock.
The typical electric garage door opener consists of a power unit that contains the electric motor. The power unit attaches to a
track. A trolley connected to an arm that attaches to the top of the garage door slides back and forth on the track, thus
opening and closing the garage door. The trolley is pulled along the track by a chain, belt, or screw that turns when the motor
is operated. A quick-release mechanism is attached to the trolley to allow the garage door to be disconnected from the
opener for manual operation during a power failure or in case of emergency. Limit switches on the power unit control the
distance the garage door opens and closes once the motor receives a signal from the remote control or wall push button to
operate the door.
The first garage door opener remote controls were simple and consisted of a simple transmitter (the remote) and receiver
which controlled the opener mechanism. The transmitter would transmit on a designated frequency; the receiver would listen
for the radio signal, then open or close the garage, depending on the door position. The basic concept of this can be traced
back to World War II. This type of system was used to detonate remote bombs. While novel at the time, the technology ran its
course when garage door openers became widely available and used. Then, not only did a person open their garage door,
they opened their neighbor’s garage door as well. While the garage door remote is low in power and in range, it was powerful
enough to interfere with other receivers in the area.
The second stage of the wireless garage door opener system
dealt with the shared frequency problem. To rectify this,
multi-code systems were developed. These systems required
a garage door owner to preset a digital code by switching eight
to twelve DIP switches on the receiver and transmitter. While
these switches provided garage door systems with 28 = 256 to
212 = 4,096 different codes, they were not designed with high
security in mind; the main intent was to avoid interference with
similar systems nearby. Criminals were able to defeat the basic
security of this system by trying different codes on a regular
transmitter. They could also make code grabbers to record and re-transmit a signal, or code scanners, that would attempt
every possible combination in a short time. Multi-code openers became unpopular in areas where security was an issue, but
due to their ease of programming, such openers are often used to operate such things as the gates in gated apartment
complexes.
Rain Sensor
A rain sensor or rain switch is a switching device activated by rainfall. There are two main applications for rain sensors. The
first is a water conservation device connected to an automatic irrigation system that causes the system to shut down in the
event of rainfall. The second is a device used to protect the interior of an automobile from rain and to support the automatic
mode of windscreen wipers. Despite cars that are easier to drive and more reliable, drivers today face more distractions than
ever – traffic and construction delays, cell phone calls, in-car navigation systems, to
name just a few. With TRW's new Rain Sensor, one such distraction is eliminated.
Without diverting the driver's attention, this fully automatic sensor keeps the
windshield clear, allowing the driver to focus on the road. TRW's Rain Sensor makes
the wiper system a "set-andforget“ function. This is a fully automatic moisture-
activated system that detects how hard rain or snow is falling and determines
when to activate the wipers and how fast to run the wiper motor. Using an advanced
optical sensing system, analog signal processing, and a control algorithm, this
technology provides drivers with added safety, convenience, and comfort in various
weather conditions.
System Operation: An infrared beam is reflected off the outside surface of the windshield to the infrared sensor array. When
moisture strikes the windshield, the system experiences an interruption to its infrared beam. Advanced analog and digital
signal processing determines the intensity of rain or snow. The sensor communicates to the wiper control module to switch
on the wiper motor and controls the wipers automatically according to the moisture intensity detected.
Features
• Vehicle specific requirements can be added without impacting the core technology
• Commonality of components and designs allows product to be introduced quickly
• Adaptable to glass type and variation without calibration.
• Advanced software control algorithm.

Automotive rain sensors detect rain falling on the windshield of a vehicle. One of
the more common rain sensor implementations employs an infrared light that is
beamed at a 45-degree angle onto the windshield from inside the car. If the glass
is wet, less light makes it back to the sensor, and the wipers turn on.
Tire-pressure monitoring system
A tire-pressure monitoring system (TPMS) is an electronic system designed to monitor the air pressure inside the pneumatic
tires on various types of vehicles. TPMS report real-time tire-pressure information to the driver of the vehicle, either via a
gauge, a pictogram display, or a simple low-pressure warning light. TPMS can be divided into two different types – direct
(dTPMS) and indirect (iTPMS). TPMS are provided both at an OEM (factory) level as well as an aftermarket solution. The target
of a TPMS is avoiding traffic accidents, poor fuel economy, and increased tire wear due to under-inflated tires through early
recognition of a hazardous state of the tires.
Indirect TPMS: Indirect TPMS do not use physical pressure sensors but measure air pressures by monitoring individual wheel
rotational speeds and other signals available outside of the tire itself. First generation iTPMS systems are based on the
principle that under-inflated tires have a slightly smaller diameter (and hence higher angular velocity) than a correctly inflated
one. These differences are measurable through the wheel speed sensors of ABS/ESC systems. Second generation iTPMS can
also detect simultaneous under-inflation in up to all four tires using spectrum analysis of individual wheels, which can be
realized in software using advanced signal processing techniques. The spectrum analysis is based on the principle that certain
eigenforms and frequencies of the tire/wheel assembly are highly sensitive to the inflation pressure. These oscillations can
hence be monitored through advanced signal processing of the wheel speed signals. Current[when?] iTPMS consist of
software modules being integrated into the ABS/ESC units.
Direct TPMS: Direct TPMS employ pressure sensors on each wheel, either internal or external. The sensors physically
measure the tire pressure in each tire and report it to the vehicle's instrument cluster or a corresponding monitor. Some units
also measure and alert temperatures of the tire as well. These systems can identify under-inflation in any combination, be it
one tire or all, simultaneously. Although the systems vary in transmitting options, many TPMS products (both OEM and
aftermarket) can display real time tire pressures at each location monitored whether the vehicle is moving or parked. There
are many different solutions, but all of them have to face the problems of exposure to hostile environments. The majority are
powered by batteries which limit their useful life. Some sensors utilise a wireless power system similar to that used in RFID
tag reading which solves the problem of limited battery life by electromagnetic induction. This also increases the frequency
of data transmission up to 40 Hz and reduces the sensor weight which can be important in motorsport applications. If the
sensors are mounted on the outside of the wheel, as are some aftermarket systems, they are subject to mechanical damage,
aggressive fluids, as well as theft. When mounted on the inside of the rim, they are no longer easily accessible for battery
change and the RF link must overcome the attenuating effects of the tire which increases the energy need.
A direct TPMS sensor consists of following main functions requiring only a few external components — e.g. battery, housing,
PCB — to get the sensor module that is mounted to the valve stem inside the tire:
• pressure sensor;
• analog-digital converter;
• microcontroller;
• system controller;
• oscillator;?
• radio frequency transmitter;
• low frequency receiver, and
• voltage regulator (battery management).