Workshop Practice (1+1)

B.Sc Industrial Engineering

Semester: 1st Session: 2018-22
FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING

1. Overview of Welding Technology

2. Types of Joint
3. Types of weld
4. Types of Welding Processes
5. Brazing, Soldering, and Adhesive
Bonding
Joining and Assembly Distinguished

Joining - welding, brazing, soldering, and

adhesive bonding
 These processes form a permanent joint
between parts
Assembly - mechanical methods (usually)
of fastening parts together
 Some of these methods allow for easy
disassembly, while others do not
 Welding
Joining process in which two (or more) parts are
coalesced at their contacting surfaces by
application of heat and/or pressure
 Many welding processes are accomplished by
heat alone, with no pressure applied
 Others by a combination of heat and pressure
 Still others by pressure alone with no external
heat
 In some welding processes a filler material is
added to facilitate coalescence
 Why Welding is Important
 Provides a permanent joint
 Welded components become a single entity
 Usually the most economical way to join parts
in terms of material usage and fabrication costs
 Mechanical fastening usually requires
additional hardware components (e.g.,
screws and nuts) and geometric alterations
of the parts being assembled (e.g., holes)
 Not restricted to a factory environment
 Welding can be accomplished "in the field"
Limitations and Drawbacks of Welding
 Most welding operations are performed
manually and are expensive in terms of labor
cost
 Most welding processes utilize high energy and
are inherently dangerous
 Welded joints do not allow for convenient
disassembly
 Welded joints can have quality defects that are
difficult to detect
 Types of Welding Processes
 Some 50 different types of welding processes
have been catalogued by the American
Welding Society (AWS)
 Welding processes can be divided into two
major categories:
 Fusion welding
 Solid state welding
 Fusion Welding
Joining processes that melt the base metals
 In many fusion welding operations, a filler
metal is added to the molten pool to facilitate
the process and provide bulk and added
strength to the welded joint
 A fusion welding operation in which no filler
metal is added is called an autogenous weld
Fusion Welding
Some Fusion Welding Processes
 Arc welding (AW) – melting of the metals is
accomplished by electric arc
 Resistance welding (RW) - melting is
accomplished by heat from resistance to an
electrical current between faying surfaces held
together under pressure
 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) - melting is
accomplished by an oxyfuel gas such as
acetylene
 Arc Welding

A manual arc welding operation

 Solid State Welding
Joining processes in which coalescence results
from application of pressure alone or a
combination of heat and pressure
 If heat is used, temperature is below melting
point of metals being welded
 No filler metal is added in solid state welding
Some Solid State Welding Processes
 Diffusion welding (DFW) –coalescence is by
solid state fusion between two surfaces held
together under pressure at elevated
temperature
 Friction welding (FRW) - coalescence by heat
of friction between two surfaces
 Ultrasonic welding (USW) - coalescence by
ultrasonic oscillating motion in a direction
parallel to contacting surfaces of two parts held
together under pressure
Principal Applications of Welding

 Construction - buildings and bridges

 Piping, pressure vessels, boilers, and
storage tanks
 Shipbuilding
 Aircraft and aerospace
 Automotive
 Railroad
 The Weld Joint
The junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that
have been joined by welding
 Two issues about weld joints:
 Types of joints
 Types of welds used to join the pieces that
form the joints
 Five Types of Joints
1. Butt joint
2. Corner joint
3. Lap joint
4. Tee joint
5. Edge joint
 Butt Joint

 Parts lie in same plane and are joined at

their edges

Five basic types of joints: (a) butt

 Corner Joint

 Parts in a corner joint

form a right angle and
are joined at the corner
of the angle

(b) corner
 Lap Joint
 Consists of two
overlapping parts

(c) Lap Joint

 Tee Joint

 One part is perpendicular

to the other in the
approximate shape of
the letter "T"

(d) tee
 Edge Joint

 Parts in an edge joint

are parallel with at
least one of their
edges in common,
and the joint is made
at the common
edge(s)

(e) edge
 Types of Welds
 Each of the preceding joints can be made by
welding
 Other joining processes can also be used for
some of the joint types
 There is a difference between joint type and
the way it is welded - the weld type
 Fillet Weld
 Used to fill in the edges of plates created by
corner, lap, and tee joints
 Filler metal used to provide cross section in
approximate shape of a right triangle
 Most common weld type in arc and oxyfuel
welding
 Requires minimum edge preparation
 Fillet Welds

 Various forms of fillet welds:

(a) inside single fillet corner joint;
(b) outside single fillet corner joint;
(c) double fillet lap joint; and
(d) double fillet tee joint.
Dashed lines show the original part edges.
 Groove Welds
 Usually requires part edges to be shaped into a
groove to facilitate weld penetration
 Edge preparation increases cost of parts
fabrication
 Grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U,
and J, in single or double sides
 Most closely associated with butt joints
 Groove Welds
 Some groove welds:
(a) square groove weld, one side;
(b) single bevel groove weld;
(c) single V-groove weld;
(d) single U-groove weld;
(e) single J-groove weld;
(f) double V-groove weld for thicker sections.
Dashed lines show original part edges.
 Spot Weld
Fused section between surfaces of two plates
 Used for lap joints
 Closely associated with resistance welding

(a) Spot weld

 WELDING PROCESSES
1. Resistance Welding
2. Arc Welding
3. Oxyfuel Gas Welding
4. Other Fusion Welding Processes
5. Solid State Welding
6. Weld Quality
7. Weldability
8. Design Considerations in Welding
Two Categories of Welding Processes
 Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished
by melting the two parts to be joined, in some
cases adding filler metal to the joint
 Examples: arc welding, resistance spot
welding, oxyfuel gas welding
 Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are
used to achieve coalescence, but no melting of
base metals occurs and no filler metal is added
 Examples: forge welding, diffusion welding,
friction welding
 Resistance Welding (RW)
A group of fusion welding processes that use a
combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence
 Heat generated by electrical resistance to
current flow at junction to be welded
 Principal RW process is resistance spot
welding (RSW)
 Resistance Welding

Resistance welding, showing the components in spot welding, the main

process in the RW group.
Components in Resistance Spot Welding
 Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)
 Two opposing electrodes
 Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts
between electrodes
 Power supply from which a controlled current
can be applied for a specified time duration
Advantages / Drawbacks of RW
Advantages:
 No filler metal required
 High production rates possible
 Lends itself to mechanization and automation
 Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
 Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantages:
 High initial equipment cost
 Limited to lap joints for most RW processes
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
Resistance welding process in which fusion of
faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one
location by opposing electrodes
 Used to join sheet metal parts using a series of
spot welds
 Widely used in mass production of
automobiles, appliances, metal furniture, and
other products made of sheet metal
 Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds
 Annual production of automobiles in the
world is measured in tens of millions of units
 Spot Welding Cycle

Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of squeezing force & current in cycle
(1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2) electrodes close, force applied,
(3) current on, (4) current off, (5) electrodes opened.
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)
Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a
series of overlapping spot welds along lap
joint
 Can produce air-tight joints
 Applications:
 Gasoline tanks
 Automobile mufflers
 Various other sheet metal containers
Resistance Seam Welding

Resistance seam welding (RSEW).

Resistance Seam Welding
Resistance Seam Welding
 Arc Welding (AW)
A fusion welding process in which coalescence of
the metals is achieved by the heat from an
electric arc between an electrode and the work
 Electric energy from the arc produces
temperatures ~ 10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough
to melt any metal
 Most AW processes add filler metal to increase
volume and strength of weld joint
 What is an Electric Arc?
An electric arc is a discharge of electric current
across a gap in a circuit
 It is sustained by an ionized column of gas
(plasma) through which the current flows
 To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought
into contact with work and then quickly
separated from it by a short distance
 Arc Welding
 A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode
tip, and as electrode is moved along joint,
molten weld pool solidifies in its wake

Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

Manual Arc Welding and Arc Time
 Problems with manual welding:
 Weld joint quality
 Productivity
 Arc Time = (time arc is on) divided by (hours
worked)
 Also called “arc-on time”
 Manual welding arc time = 20%
 Machine welding arc time ~ 50%
Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes
 Consumable – consumed during welding
process
 Source of filler metal in arc welding
 Nonconsumable – not consumed during
welding process
 Filler metal must be added separately
 Arc Shielding
 At high temperatures in AW, metals are
chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen in air
 Mechanical properties of joint can be
seriously degraded by these reactions
 To protect operation, arc must be shielded
from surrounding air in AW processes
 Arc shielding is accomplished by:
 Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
 Flux
 Flux
A substance that prevents formation of oxides
and other contaminants in welding, or
dissolves them and facilitates removal
 Provides protective atmosphere for welding
Consumable Electrode AW Processes

 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FAW)
 Electrogas Welding (EW)
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Arc Welding Process
 Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)
Group of fusion welding operations that burn
various fuels mixed with oxygen
 OFW employs several types of gases, which is
the primary distinction among the members of
this group
 Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting
torches to cut and separate metal plates and
other parts
 Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene
welding
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
Fusion welding performed by a high temperature
flame from combustion of acetylene and
oxygen
 Flame is directed by a welding torch
 Filler metal is sometimes added
 Composition must be similar to base metal
 Filler rod often coated with flux to clean
surfaces and prevent oxidation
Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
 Oxyacetylene Welding

A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW).

 Alternative Gases for OFW
 Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MAPP)
 Hydrogen
 Propylene
 Propane
 Natural Gas
OFW Process
OFW Process- Butt joint
OFW Process- Corner joint
OFW Process- Corner joint
 BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND
ADHESIVE BONDING
1. Brazing
2. Soldering
3. Adhesive Bonding
 Brazing
Joining process in which a filler metal is melted
and distributed by capillary action between
faying surfaces of metal parts being joined
 No melting of base metals occurs
 Only the filler melts
 Filler metal Tm greater than 450C (840F) but
less than Tm of base metal(s) to be joined
 Brazing Compared to Welding
 Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar
metals
 Can be performed quickly and consistently,
permitting high production rates
 Multiple joints can be brazed simultaneously
 Less heat and power required than FW
 Joint areas that are inaccessible by many
welding processes can be brazed; capillary
action draws molten filler metal into joint
Disadvantages and Limitations of Brazing
 Joint strength is generally less than a welded
joint
 Joint strength is likely to be less than the base
metals
 High service temperatures may weaken a
brazed joint
 Color of brazing metal may not match color of
base metal parts, a possible aesthetic
disadvantage
 Brazing Applications
 Automotive (e.g., joining tubes and pipes)
 Electrical equipment (e.g., joining wires and
cables)
 Cutting tools (e.g., brazing cemented carbide
inserts to shanks)
 Jewelry
 Chemical process industry
 Plumbing and heating contractors join metal
pipes and tubes by brazing
 Repair and maintenance work
 Brazed Joints
 Butt and lap joints common
 Geometry of butt joints is usually adapted
for brazing
 Lap joints are more widely used, since they
provide larger interface area between parts
 Filler metal in a brazed lap joint is bonded to
base parts throughout entire interface area,
rather than only at edges
 Butt Joints for Brazing

(a) Conventional butt joint, and adaptations of the butt joint

for brazing: (b) scarf joint, (c) stepped butt joint, (d)
increased cross-section of the part at the joint.
 Lap Joints for Brazing

(a) Conventional lap joint, and adaptations of the lap joint for brazing: (b)
cylindrical parts, (c) sandwiched parts, and (d) use of sleeve to convert butt
joint into lap joint.
 Applying Filler Metal

Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing: (a) torch and
filler rod. Sequence: (1) before, and (2) after.
 Applying Filler Metal

Several techniques for applying filler metal in brazing: (b) ring of

filler metal at entrance of gap. Sequence: (1) before, and (2) after.
 Brazing Fluxes
 Similar purpose as in welding; they dissolve,
combine with, and otherwise inhibit formation
of oxides and other unwanted byproducts in
brazing process
 Characteristics of a good flux include:
 Low melting temperature
 Low viscosity so it can be displaced by filler
metal
 Facilitates wetting
 Protects joint until solidification of filler metal
 Heating Methods in Brazing
 Torch Brazing - torch directs flame against
work in vicinity of joint
 Furnace Brazing - furnace supplies heat
 Induction Brazing – heating by electrical
resistance to high-frequency current in work
 Resistance Brazing - heating by electrical
resistance in parts
 Dip Brazing - molten salt or molten metal bath
 Infrared Brazing - uses high-intensity infrared
lamp
Brazing Process- Butt joint
Brazing Process
 Ice Breaking Activity
 Brazing vs. Welding
 Drawbacks of Brazing?
 Enlist 3 brazed things?
 Soldering
Joining process in which a filler metal with Tm
less than or equal to 450C (840F) is melted
and distributed by capillary action between
faying surfaces of metal parts being joined
 No melting of base metals, but filler metal
wets and combines with base metal to form
metallurgical bond
 Soldering similar to brazing, and many of the
same heating methods are used
 Filler metal called solder
 Most closely associated with electrical and
electronics assembly (wire soldering)
Soldering Advantages / Disadvantages
Advantages:
 Lower energy than brazing or fusion welding
 Variety of heating methods available
 Good electrical and thermal conductivity in joint
 Easy repair and rework
Disadvantages:
 Low joint strength unless reinforced by
mechanically means
 Possible weakening or melting of joint in
elevated temperature service
 Solders
Usually alloys of tin (Sn) and lead (Pb). Both
metals have low Tm
 Lead is poisonous and its percentage is
minimized in most solders
 Tin is chemically active at soldering
temperatures and promotes wetting action
for successful joining
 In soldering copper, copper and tin form
intermetallic compounds that strengthen
bond
 Silver and antimony also used in soldering
alloys
Soldering Process
 Mechanical Means to Secure Joint

Techniques for securing the joint by mechanical means prior to soldering in

electrical connections: (a) crimped lead wire on PC board; (b) plated
through-hole on PC board to maximize solder contact surface; (c) hooked wire
on flat terminal; and (d) twisted wires.
 Functions of Soldering Fluxes
 Be molten at soldering temperatures
 Remove oxide films and tarnish from base part
surfaces
 Prevent oxidation during heating
 Promote wetting of faying surfaces
 Be readily displaced by molten solder during
process
 Leave residue that is non-corrosive and
nonconductive
Compatibility of Soldering
 Soldering Methods
 Many soldering methods same as for brazing,
except less heat and lower temperatures are
required
 Additional methods:
 Hand soldering – manually operated
soldering gun
 Wave soldering – soldering of multiple lead
wires in printed circuit cards
 Reflow soldering –used for surface mount
components on printed circuit cards
 Wave Soldering

Wave soldering, in which molten solder is delivered up through a narrow

slot onto the underside of a printed circuit board to connect the
component lead wires.
Soldering Process
 Adhesive Bonding
Joining process in which a filler material is used
to hold two (or more) closely-spaced parts
together by surface attachment
 Used in a wide range of bonding and sealing
applications for joining similar and dissimilar
materials such as metals, plastics, ceramics,
wood, paper, and cardboard
 Considered a growth area because of
opportunities for increased applications
Terminology in Adhesive Bonding
 Adhesive = filler material, nonmetallic, usually
a polymer
 Adherends = parts being joined
 Structural adhesives – of greatest interest in
engineering, capable of forming strong,
permanent joints between strong, rigid
adherends
 Curing in Adhesive Bonding
Process by which physical properties of the
adhesive are changed from liquid to solid,
usually by chemical reaction, to accomplish
surface attachment of parts
 Curing often aided by heat and/or a catalyst
 If heat used, temperatures are relatively low
 Curing takes time - a disadvantage in
production
 Pressure sometimes applied between parts to
activate bonding process
 Joint Strength
 Depends on strength of:
 Adhesive
 Attachment between adhesive and
adherends
 Attachment mechanisms:
 Chemical bonding – adhesive and
adherend form primary bond on curing
 Physical interactions - secondary
bonding forces between surface atoms
 Mechanical interlocking - roughness of
adherend causes adhesive to become
entangled in surface asperities
 Joint Design
 Adhesive joints are not as strong as welded,
brazed, or soldered joints
 Joint contact area should be maximized
 Adhesive joints are strongest in shear and
tension
 Joints should be designed so applied
stresses are of these types
 Adhesive bonded joints are weakest in
cleavage or peeling
 Joints should be designed to avoid these
types of stresses
Types of Stresses in Adhesive Bonding
 Types of stresses that must be considered in
adhesive bonded joints:
(a) tension, (b) shear,
(c) cleavage, and (d) peeling.
 Joint Designs in Adhesive Bonding

Some joint designs for adhesive bonding: (a) through (d) butt
joints; (e) through (f) T-joints; (b) and (g) through (j) corner joints.
 Adhesive Types
 Natural adhesives - derived from natural
sources, including gums, starch, dextrin, soya
flour, collagen
 Low-stress applications: cardboard cartons,
furniture, bookbinding, plywood
 Inorganic - based principally on sodium silicate
and magnesium oxychloride
 Low cost, low strength
 Synthetic adhesives - various thermoplastic
and thermosetting polymers
 Synthetic Adhesives
 Most important category in manufacturing
 Synthetic adhesives cured by various
mechanisms:
 Mixing catalyst or reactive ingredient with
polymer prior to applying
 Heating to initiate chemical reaction
 Radiation curing, such as UV light
 Curing by evaporation of water
 Application as films or pressure-sensitive
coatings on surface of adherend
 Applications of Adhesives
 Automotive, aircraft, building products,
shipbuilding
 Packaging industries
 Footwear
 Furniture
 Bookbinding
 Electrical and electronics
 Surface Preparation
 For adhesive bonding to succeed, part
surfaces must be extremely clean
 Bond strength depends on degree of
adhesion between adhesive and adherend,
and this depends on cleanliness of surface
 For metals, solvent wiping often used for
cleaning, and abrading surface by
sandblasting improves adhesion
 For nonmetallic parts, surfaces are
sometimes mechanically abraded or
chemically etched to increase roughness
 Application Methods
 Manual brushing and rolling
 Silk screening
 Flowing, using manually operated dispensers
 Spraying
 Automatic applicators
 Roll coating
Adhesive is dispensed
by a manually
controlled dispenser to
bond parts during
assembly (photo
courtesy of EFD Inc.).
Advantages of Adhesive Bonding
 Applicable to a wide variety of materials
 Bonding occurs over entire surface area of joint
 Low temperature curing avoids damage to
parts being joined
 Sealing as well as bonding
 Joint design is often simplified, e.g., two flat
surfaces can be joined without providing
special part features such as screw holes
Limitations of Adhesive Bonding
 Joints generally not as strong as other joining
methods
 Adhesive must be compatible with materials
being joined
 Service temperatures are limited
 Cleanliness and surface preparation prior to
application of adhesive are important
 Curing times can limit production rates
 Inspection of bonded joint is difficult