FACILITATING LEARNING

(Educ. 203)

(Professor)
 FREUD
ERICKSON PIAGET
3 Components of Personality
8 Psycho-social Stages of 4 Stages of Cognitive
5 Psychosexual Stages of
Development Development
Development

Theories Related to
the Learner’s
Development

VYGOTSKY
KOHLBERG
• Language Development BRONFENBRENNER
3 Stages and 6 Substances of
• Zone of Proximal Bio-Ecological System
Moral Development
Development
FREUD’S PSYCHO-SEXUAL THEORY
 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who came to believe
that the way parents dealt with children's basic sexual and aggressive desires
would determine how their personalities developed and whether or not
they would end up well-adjusted as adults.
 Freud proposed that there were 5 stages of development and he believed
that few people successfully completed all of the stages. Instead, he felt that
most people tied up their libido at one of the stages, which prevented them
from using that energy at a later stage.
 He labeled these five stages as: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital.
 Oral Stage
• From birth to 2 years.
• Erogenous zone is the mouth, thus, the child’s source of
oral pleasures is through sucking.
• Too much satisfaction can lead to an oral fixation called
oral receptive – having a stronger tendency for a person
to smoke, drink alcohol, or overeat.
• Too little satisfaction may lead to an oral personality
called oral aggressive – a tendency for a person to bite
his nails, or use curse words, or even gossip.
• These persons may become too dependent to others,
easily fooled, and lack leadership skills.
 Anal Stage
• From 2 to 3 years old.
• The child’s focus of pleasure is the anus, and
finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining
feces.
• This is the time when the child is expected to do
toilet training.
• Personality fixation in this stage can result in
anal retentive – an obsession with cleanliness,
perfection, and control; or anal expulsive – a
tendency for a person to become messy and
disorganized.
 Phallic Stage
• From 3 to 6 years old.
• The word ‘phallic’ comes from the Latin word ‘phallus’ which
means ‘penis’.
• The pleasure zone is the genitals, hence, preschoolers are
sometimes seen fondling their genitals.
• During this stage, children become interested in what makes
boys and girls different.
• Oedipus complex – a boy’s unconscious sexual desire for his
mother and sees his father as a rival for his mother’s attention.
• Electra Complex – a girl’s unconscious sexual desire towards
her father.
• Fixation in this stage could result in sexual deviances (both
overindulging and avoidance) and weak or confused sexual
identity .
 Latency Stage
• From 6 to puberty.
• At this stage, sexual urges are repressed.
• The child’s focus is the acquisition of
physical and academic skills.
• Boys relate more with boys and girls with
girls as well.
 Genital Stage
• From puberty onwards.
• Sexual urges are again awakened.
• In the earlier stages, adolescents
focus their sexual urges towards
the opposite sex, with the pleasure
centered on the genitals.
 FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS

• Freud described the personality structures

as having three components: id, ego, and
superego. For each person, the first to
emerge is the id, followed by the ego, and
last to develop is the superego.
 FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
1. The Id. According to Freud, a baby is born with the id.
It plays a vital role in one’s personality because as a baby, it works so
that the baby’s needs are met.
It operates on the pleasure principle and focuses on immediate
gratification or satisfaction of its needs.
Whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no consideration
for the reality, logicality or practicality of the situation.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its needs.
It is not oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of others.
 FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
2. The Ego. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler,
he/she relates more with the environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge.
It operates using the reality principle.
It is aware that others also have needs to be met.
It is practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to
negative consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best response to
situations.
It is the deciding agent of the personality.
Although it functions to help the id meet its needs, it always takes into
account the reality of the situation.
 FREUD’S PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
3. The Superego. Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of
the phallic stage, the superego develops.
It embodies a person’s moral aspect.
This develops from what the parents, teachers, and other persons
who exert influence to be good or morally upright.
It is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one
considers to be right or wrong.
 PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
THEORY

• Piaget studied his 3 children to focus not on what they knew, but
how they knew it.
• Children construct their understanding of the world through their
active involvement and interactions.
• He identified the 4 stages of cognitive development as:
-Sensori-motor -Concrete operational
-Preoperational -Formal operational
BASIC COGNITIVE CONCEPTS
BASIC COGNITIVE CONCEPTS
 Sensori-motor Stage
• This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping,
sucking, and reaching becomes more organized in his movement
and activity.
• It focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement
through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the
world.
• In working with children in this stage, teachers should aim to
provide a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects
to play with.
Object permanence – is the ability of the child to know that an
object still exists even when out of sight.
 Pre-operational Stage
• Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature.
• The child can now make mental representations and is able to
pretend, and is closer to the use of symbols.
• This stage is highlighted by the following:
Symbolic function – the ability to represent objects and events.
Egocentrism – is the tendency of the child to only see his point of
view and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view.
The child cannot take the perspective of others.
Centration – refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on
one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects.
 Pre-operational Stage
 This stage is highlighted by the following:
Irreversibility – the inability to reverse their thinking.
Animism – the tendency of children to attribute human-
like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects.
Transductive reasoning – refers to the child’s type of
reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.
Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular.
 Concrete-Operational Stage
• This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think
logically but only in terms of concrete objects.
• This is marked by the following:
Decentering – refers to the ability of the child to perceive the
different features of objects and situations.
Reversibility – the ability of the child to follow that certain
operations can be done in reverse.
Conservation – the ability to know that certain properties of
objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if
there is a change in appearance.
Seriation – refers to the ability to order or arrange things in series
based on one dimension such as weight, volume or size.
 Formal Operational Stage
• In this stage, thinking becomes more logical.
• This stage is characterized by the following:
Hypothetical reasoning – the ability to come up
with different hypothesis about a problem and
to gather and weigh data in order to make a final
decision or judgement in the absence of
concrete objects. The child can now deal with
“what if questions”.
 Formal Operational Stage
• This stage is characterized by the following:
Analogical reasoning – the ability to perceive
the relationship in one instance and then use
that relationship to narrow down possible
answers in another similar situation or problem.
Deductive reasoning – the ability to think
logically by applying general rule to a particular
instance or situation.
 Introduction to the 8 Stages
• Erikson’s ‘psychosocial’ term is derived from the two source words namely:
-psychological (or the root, ‘psycho’ relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc.)
-social (external relationships and environment)
• It was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud, but Erikson extended the theory and
incorporated cultural and social aspects into Freud’s biological and sexually-oriented
theory.
• It delved into how personality was formed and believed that the earlier stages served as
the foundation for the later stages, and highlighted the influence of one’s environment,
particularly on how earlier experiences gradually build upon the next and result into one’s
personality.
 Introduction to the 8 Stages
• Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces
or ‘contrary dispositions’. Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life
stage and its inherent challenges, and he used the words ‘syntonic’ for the
positive disposition and ‘dystonic’ for the negative. To signify the conflicting
relationship between each pair of dispositions he connected them with the
word versus.
• If a stage is managed well, a person will carry away a certain virtue or
psychosocial strength which will help him through the rest of the stages of
his life. Successfully passing through each crisis involves ‘achieving’ a healthy
ratio or balance between the two opposing dispositions that represent each
crisis.
 Introduction to the 8 Stages
• If a person doesn’t do so well, he may develop maladaptations and
malignancies, as well as endanger all his future development. A malignancy
is the worse of the two as it involves too little of the positive and too much
of the negative aspect of the task, such as a person can’t trust others. A
maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and
too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too much.
• The crisis stages are not sharply defined steps; thus, Erikson was keen to
point out that the transition between stages is ‘overlapping’. Crisis stages
connect with each other like inter-laced fingers and not like a series of neatly
stacked boxes. Changes don’t happen in regimented clear-cut steps, instead
they are graduated, mixed-together and organic.
 Introduction to the 8 Stages
• Erikson also emphasized the significance of ‘mutuality’ and ‘generativity’ in
his theory, and the terms are linked.
Mutuality reflects the effect of generations on each other, especially among
families, and particularly between parents and children and grandchildren.
Everyone potentially affects everyone else’s experiences as they pass through
the different crisis stages.
Generativity reflects the significant relationship between adults and the best
interest of children – one’s own children, and in a way everyone else’s children
– the next generation, and all following generations.
 TRUST vs. MISTRUST
Psychosocial Crisis
• This is the infancy stage. The goal here is to develop trust
without completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust.
• If the primary caregivers, like the parents can give the
baby a sense of familiarity, consistency, and continuity, the
baby will develop the feeling that the world is a safe place
to be, and that the people are reliable and loving.
• If the parents are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject
the infant or harm it, if other interests cause both parents
to turn away from the infant’s needs to satisfy their own
instead, the infant will develop mistrust and become
apprehensive and suspicious around people.
 TRUST vs. MISTRUST
Maladaptation/Malignancy
 An overly protected child will lead him into the
maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls ‘sensory
maladjustment’ – overly trusting and gullible. A person
who cannot believe anyone would mean them harm, and
will use all the defenses at their command to find an
explanation for the person who did him wrong.
 If the child’s balance is tipped way over on the mistrust
side, he will develop the malignant tendency of
withdrawal, characterized by depression, paranoia, and
possibly psychosis.
 TRUST vs. MISTRUST
Virtue
 If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop
the virtue of hope, the strong belief that, even when
things are not going well, they will work out well in the
end.
 One of the signs that a child is doing well in the first
stage is when he is not overly upset by the need to wait a
moment for the satisfaction of his needs.
 This is the same ability that, later in life gets us through
disappointments in love, our careers, and many other
domains of life.
 AUTONOMY vs. SHAME AND DOUBT
Psychosocial Crisis
 This is the early childhood stage. The task here is to achieve
a degree of autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt.
 If the caregiver or mom and dad permit the toddler to
explore and manipulate his environment, he will develop a
sense of autonomy and independence.
 In this stage, the parents should neither discourage nor push
the child, but a balance is required. They are advised to be
“firm but tolerant”. This way, the child will develop both the
self-control and self-esteem.
AUTONOMY vs. SHAME AND DOUBT
Psychosocial Crisis
 If the parents come down hard on any attempt of the child
to explore and be independent, he will soon give up with
the belief that he cannot and should not act on his own and
will then develop a sense of shame and doubt.
 Put in mind that even something as innocent as laughing at
the toddler’s effort can lead him to feel deeply ashamed and
to doubt his abilities.
 If you give a child unrestricted freedom and no sense of
limits, or if you try to help him do what he should learn to
do for himself, you also give him the impression that he is
not good for much.
AUTONOMY vs. SHAME AND DOUBT

Maladaptation/Malignancy
 A little shame and doubt is not only inevitable but
beneficial. Without it, the child will develop the maladaptive
tendency called impulsiveness – a sort of shameful
willfulness that will lead him in later childhood and even
adulthood to jump into things without consideration of his
abilities.
 Too much shame and doubt will lead to malignancy known
as compulsiveness – a feeling that enables a person to
sense as if his entire being rides on everything he does, and
so he must have to do it perfectly. Following all the rules
keep him from mistakes, and so mistakes must be avoided at
all costs.
AUTONOMY vs. SHAME AND DOUBT

Virtue
 If the child gets the proper, positive balance of
autonomy and shame and doubt, he will develop
the virtue of willpower and determination.
 One of the most admirable and frustrating things
about 2 and 3 years old kids is their determination.
“Can do” is their motto. If parents can preserve
that ‘can do’ attitude (with appropriate modesty to
balance) their child will become better off as adults.
 Initiative vs. Guilt
Psychosocial Crisis
 This is the preschool stage. The task here is to learn
initiative without too much guilt.
 Initiative means a positive response to the world’s
challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills,
feeling purposeful.
 Parents can encourage initiative by encouraging their
child to try out his ideas. They should accept and
encourage fantasy, curiosity, and imagination.
 This is the time for play, not for formal education.
 Initiative vs. Guilt
Psychosocial Crisis
 The child is now capable of imagining a future situation, one
that is not a reality right now. Initiative is the attempt to make
that non-reality a reality.
 If children can imagine the future, if they can plan, then they
can be responsible as well, and guilty.
 If a 2 year old child flushes a watch down the toilet, it can be
safely assume that there was no evil intention but fun.
However, if a 5 year old does the same thing, he should know
what’s going to happen to the watch, what’s going to happen to
daddy’s temper, and what’s going to happen to him. He can be
guilty of the act and begin to feel guilty as well. The capacity
for moral judgement has arrived.
 Initiative vs. Guilt
Maladaptation/Malignancy
 Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive
tendency called ruthlessness – being heartless or unfeeling, an
inability to be merciful. A ruthless person takes the initiative
heartlessly, and he doesn’t care who he steps on to achieve his
goals. The goals are the only thing that matters, and guilty
feelings and mercy are signs of weakness. The extreme form of
ruthlessness is sociopathy.
 The malignancy of too much guilt known as inhibition –
disallows a person to try out on new things. He may believe
that “nothing ventured, nothing lost” and in particular, nothing
to feel guilty about.
 Initiative vs. Guilt
Virtue
 A good balance leads to the psychosocial
strength of purpose. A sense of purpose is
something many people crave for their lives, yet
many do not realize that they themselves make
their purpose through imagination and initiative.
 An even better word for this virtue is courage –
the capacity for action despite a clear
understanding of one’s limitation and past
failings.
 Industry vs. Inferiority
Psychosocial Crisis
 This is the school-age stage. The task here is to
develop a capacity for industry while avoiding an
excessive sense of inferiority.
 The child here dedicates himself to education and
to learning social skills the society requires of him.
 There is a much broader social sphere at work as
parents and other family members are joined by
teachers and peers and the community at large.
Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers
must accept.
Industry vs. Inferiority
Psychosocial Crisis
 The child must learn that there is pleasure not
inly in conceiving a plan, but in carrying it out
to achieve success.
 If the child is allowed too little success
because of harsh teachers or rejecting peers,
then he will develop a sense of inferiority or
incompetence.
 Industry vs. Inferiority
Maladaptation/Malignancy
 Too much industry and a child will develop what Erikson
called “narrow virtuosity”, such as when parents or
teachers push a child into one area of competence,
without allowing the development of broader interests.
These are the kids without life: child actors, musicians or
prodigies of all sorts.
 Too little industry leads to a more common malignancy
which Erikson termed “inertia”, or inferiority
complexes.
Industry vs. Inferiority
Virtue
 A happier thing is to develop the right
balance of industry and inferiority –
that is, mostly industry with just a
touch of inferiority to keep a person
sensibly humble and then he will have
the virtue called competency.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Psychosocial Crisis
 This is the adolescence stage, beginning with
puberty and ending around 18 or 20 years old. The
task here is to achieve ego identity and avoid role
confusion.
 Ego identity means knowing who you are and
how you fit in to the rest of the society.
 The child must take all he has learned about life
and himself and mold it into a unified self-image,
one that the community finds meaningful.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Psychosocial Crisis
 Society should provide rites of passage, a certain
accomplishments and rituals that help to
distinguish the adult from the child.
 Boys and girls may be required to go through
certain tests of endurance, symbolic ceremonies, or
educational events. Thus, the distinction between
the powerless but irresponsible time of childhood
and the powerful time of adulthood is made clear.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Psychosocial Crisis
 Role confusion means an uncertainty about one’s
place in the society and the world.
 When an adolescent is confronted by role
confusion, Erikson says, he is suffering from an
identity crisis.
 Psychosocial moratorium – Erikson’s suggestion
for adolescence in the society to take a little “time
out” and get to know himself.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Maladaptation/Malignancy
 There is such a thing as too much “ego identity”,
where a person is so involved in a particular role in a
particular society or subculture that there is no room
left for tolerance because he believes that his way is the
only way, and this maladaptive tendency is fanaticism.
 The lack of identity is more difficult and Erikson
refers to the malignant tendency as repudiation – the
tendency to reject. Thus, the person rejects his
membership in the world of adults and rejects his need
for identity. He prefers to go to groups that go against
the norms to form his identity.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Virtue
 If the adolescent successfully negotiates this stage,
he will have the virtue called fidelity – this means
loyalty, the ability to live by societies standards
despite its imperfections, incompleteness and
inconsistencies.
 It’s not about blind loyalty where one accepts the
imperfections; instead, it a kind of loyalty in which
a person finds a place in the community that allows
him to contribute.
 Intimacy vs. Isolation
Psychosocial Crisis
 This is the stage of young adulthood, which lasts
from about 18 to about 30 years old. The task
here is to achieve some degree of intimacy, as
opposed to remain in isolation.
 Intimacy – is the ability to be close to others, as
a lover, a friend, and as a participant in the
society.
 The young adult in this stage already have a clear
sense of who he is, and no longer need to fear of
‘losing’ himself.
 Intimacy vs. Isolation
Maladaptation/Malignancy
 Erikson calls the maladaptive form
promiscuity – referring particularly to the
tendency to become intimate too freely, too
easily, and without any depth to his intimacy.
 The malignancy is termed exclusion – which
refers to the tendency to isolate oneself from
love, friendship, and community, and to
develop a certain hatefulness in compensation
for one’s loneliness.
 Intimacy vs. Isolation
Virtue
 If the young adult successfully negotiates this
stage, he will carry with him for the rest of his
life the virtue or the psychological strength called
love – the ability of being able to put aside
differences and antagonism through “mutuality
of devotion”.
 It includes not only the love that is found in good
marriage, but the love between friends and the
love of one’s neighbor, co-worker, and
compatriot as well.
 Generativity vs. Stagnation
Psychological Crisis
 This is the middle adulthood stage, somewhere
between the middle 20’s and the late 50’s. The
task here is to cultivate the proper balance of
generativity and stagnation.
 Generativity – is an extension of love into the
future. It is a concern for the next generation
and all future generations.
 Generativity vs. Stagnation
Psychological Crisis
 Teaching, writing, invention, the arts and
sciences, social activism, and contributing to the
welfare of future ‘generations in general are
considered by Erikson as generativity as well –
anything that satisfies that old “need to be
needed”.
 Stagnation – is self-absorption, caring for no-
one. The stagnant person stops to be a
productive member of the society.
 Generativity vs. Stagnation
Psychological Crisis
 Too much generativity and too little stagnation will
result to a maladaptive tendency called
overextension – this happens to people who tries to
be so generative that they no longer allow time for
themselves for rest and relaxation.
 Too much stagnation and too little generativity will
effect a malignant tendency of rejectivity – a
description which happens to people who no longer
participate in or contribute to society.
 This is the stage of the “midlife crisis”.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Psychological Crisis
 If a person succeeds in this stage,
he will have the capacity for
caring that will serve him
through the rest of his life.
 Integrity vs. Despair
Psychological Crisis
 This is the stage of late adulthood or maturity,
somewhere around 60 years old.
 The task here is to develop ego integrity with a
minimal amount of despair.
 This stage seems like the most difficult of all
because this is the time of detachment from
society, from a sense of usefulness, and for most
people from culture.
 Integrity vs. Despair
Psychological Crisis
 Then there is a sense of biological usefulness, as
the body no longer does everything it used to.
then there are the illnesses of old age and along
with the illnesses come concerns of death.
 Faced with all this, it might seem like everyone
would feel despair.
 Ego integrity – means coming to terms with
one’s life, and thereby coming to terms with the
end of life.
 Integrity vs. Despair
Maladaptation/Malignancy
 The maladaptive tendency in this stage is called
presumption – which happens when a person
‘presumes’ ego integrity’ without actually facing the
difficulties of old age.
 The person in old age believes that he alone is right
and he doesn’t respect the ideas and views of the
young.
 The malignant tendency is called disdain, which
Erikson means a contempt of life, one’s own or
anyone’s. The person becomes very negative and
appears to hate life.
 Integrity vs. Despair
Virtue
 Someone who approaches death without
fear has the strength called wisdom.
 Erikson calls it a gift to children because
“healthy children will not fear life if their
elders have integrity enough not to fear
death”.
 Introduction
• Lawrence Kohlberg adopted and built on Piaget’s work, and set the
groundwork for the present debate within psychology on moral
development.
• He believed that children form ways of thinking through their
experiences which include understandings of moral concepts such as
justice, rights, equality and human welfare.
• Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment and extended
the ages covered by Piaget, and found out that the process of attaining
moral maturity took longer and occurred slower than Piaget had
thought.
 Introduction
• He utilized moral dilemmas and presented them to the individuals
in his research and asked for their responses.
• He did not aim to judge whether the responses were right or wrong
because he was just interested in analyzing the moral reasoning
behind the responses.
• From his research, Kohlberg identified 6 stages of moral reasoning,
and grouped them into 3 major levels.
• Each level represents a significant change in the social-moral
reasoning or perspective of the person.
 Level 1 Stage 1 – Punishment /
Preconventional
Obedience
Morality
One is motivated by fear of punishment.
Moral reasoning Thus, he will act in order to avoid
is based on the punishment.
consequence or
the result of the Stage 2 – Instrumental Relativist
act, not on or Mutual Benefit
whether the act One is motivated to act by the benefit that he
itself is good or may obtain later. “You scratch my back , I’ll
bad. scratch yours”.
 Level 2 Stage 3 – Social Approval
One is motivated by what others expect in
Conventional
behavior – good boy or good girl. The person
Morality acts because he/she values how he/she will
Moral reasoning appear to others. He/she gives importance to
is based on the what people will think or say.
conventions or
“norms” of
Stage 4 – Law and Order
society. This may
One is motivated to act in order to uphold
include approval
law and order. The person will follow the law
of others, law and
because it is the law.
order.
 Level 3 Stage 5 – Social Contract
Post- Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will
conventional act based on social justice and the common
Morality good.
Moral reasoning is
based on enduring Stage 6 – Universal Principles
or consistent
This is associated with the development of
principles. It is not
just recognizing the one’s conscience. Having a set of standards
law, but the that drives one to possess moral
principles behind responsibility to make societal changes
the law. regardless of consequences to oneself.
 Introduction
• The key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a
very important role in cognitive development.
• He believed that individual development could not be understood
without looking into the social and cultural context within which
development happens.
• Scaffolding – is Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance given
by the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task.
• Vygotsky recognized social interaction and language as two central
factors in cognitive development.
 Generalization
• Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in
between the 1920’s and 1930’s, but they had clear differences in their
views about cognitive development as follows:
Piaget Vygotsky

More individual in focus and believed that More social in focus and did not propose
there are universal stages of cognitive stages but emphasized on cultural factors in
development. cognitive development.

Did not give much emphasis on language. Stressed the role of language in cognitive
development.
 Generalization
SOCIAL INTERACTION
Piaget Vygotsky
 Theory was more social.
Theory was more individual.  Gave more weight on the social interactions that
Piagetian’s tasks focused contributed to the cognitive development of
individuals.
heavily on how an individual’s  For him, the social environment or the community
cognitive development became takes on a major role in one’s development.
 He emphasized that effective learning happens
evident through his own through participation in social activities, making the
social context of learning crucial.
processing of the tasks.  Parents, teachers, and other adults in the learners’
environment all contribute to the process as they
explain, model, assist, give directions, and provide
feedback.
 Peers cooperate and collaborate, and enrich the
learning experience.
 Generalization
CULTURAL FACTORS
Piaget Vygotsky
Believed that as the child Believed in the crucial role
develops and matures, he goes that culture played on the
through universal stages of cognitive development of
cognitive development that
children.
allows him to move from
simple explorations with senses Looked into the wide range
and muscles to complex of experiences that a culture
reasoning. would give to a child.
 Generalization
Vygotsky accentuated the role of language in cognitive development as
it opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already
have, and they can use language to know and understand the world and
solve problems.
Language serves a social function but it also has an important individual
function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking.
Children talk to themselves, and for Vygotsky, it is ‘talking-to-oneself ’
– an indication of the thinking that goes on in the mind of the child,
which shall eventually lead to ‘private speech’ – a form of self-talk that
guides the child’s thinking and action.
 Generalization
Vygotsky also believed in the essential role of activities in learning.
He thought that children learn best through hands-on activities than when listening
passively.
For him, learning by doing is even made more fruitful when children interact with
knowledgeable adults and peers.
Zone of actual development – refers to the accomplishment that a child can do alone.
Zone of proximal development – refers to the difference between what the child can do
alone and what he can accomplish with the guidance of a more knowledgeable other
(MKO).
Scaffolding – is the support that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot accomplish
independently.
 Introduction
Bronfenbrenner’s theory also known as the Biological Systems Theory presents child
development within the context of relationship systems that comprise the child’s
environment.
It describes multipart layers of environment that has an effect on the development of the
child, and each layer is further made up of different structures.
The term ‘biological’ points out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts as a key
factor in one’s development.
Through the child’s growing and developing body and the interplay between his immediate
family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers his
development; hence, changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other
layers.
 The Microsystem
• This is the layer nearest the child and it comprises structures which
the child directly interacts with such as his family, school and
neighborhood.
• It covers the most basic relationships and interactions that a child
has in his immediate environment.
• Relationship effects here happens in two directions – both away
from the child and towards the child. Meaning, the child is affected
by people with whom he interacts and in turn, these people are also
affected by the child.
 The Microsystem
• The child is affected by the behavior and beliefs of the parents;
however, the child also affects the behavior and belief of the
parents, and Bronfenbrenner calls it bi-directional influences
which is quite similar to Erikson’s mutuality in his psychosocial
theory.
• Bronfenbrenner’s theory looks into the interaction of structures
between layers, thus, in this level, the child is most affected by these
bi-directional influences. However, interactions at outer layers still
influence the structures of the microsystem.
 The Mesosystem
• This layer serves as the connection between
the structures of the child’s microsystem
which include the link or interaction between
the parents and teachers, or the parents and
health services or the community and the
church.
 The Exosystem
• This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child does
not function directly which includes the city government, the
workplace, and the mass media.
• The structures in this layer may influence the child’s development
by somehow affecting some structure in the child’s microsystem.
• The child may not interact directly with what is in the exosystem,
but he is likely to feel the positive or negative impact this system
creates as it interacts with the child’s own system.
 The Macrosystem
• This layer is found in the outermost part in the child’s environment
such as the cultural values, customs, and laws.
• The belief system contained in one’s macrosystem permeates all the
interactions in the other layers and reaches the individual.
• Differences in beliefs and customs make children from different
parts of the world experience different child-rearing practices and
therefore differences in development as well.
 The Chronosystem
• This layer covers the element of time as it relates to the child’s
environments which involve the “pattern of stability and change”
in the child’s life.
• It involves whether the child’s day is characterized by an orderly
predictable pattern, or whether the child is subjected to sudden
changes in routine.
• This system can affect or influence the child both externally and
internally.
 The Chronosystem
• As children get older, they may react differently to environmental changes as
they may have acquired the ability to cope and decide to what extent they will
allow changes around to affect them.
• No longer nature vs. nurture, NURTURING NATURE!
• Development theories and various researches now point out that both heredity
and the child’s environment play a vital role in his growth and development.
• This bioecological theory helps us determine how the different circumstances,
conditions and relationships in the world affect the child as he goes through the
more or else predictable sequence of natural growth and development.
 Implications
• The instability and unpredictability of family life is the most destructive force to a
child’s development.
• Absence or lack of children’s constant mutual interaction with important adults has
negative effects on their development.
• If the relationships in the immediate microsystem break down, the child will not
have the tools to explore other parts of his environment.
• Children looking for the affirmations that should be present in the child/parent (or
child/other important adult) relationship look for attention in inappropriate places.
• These deficiencies show themselves, especially in adolescence as anti-social
behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to provide self-direction.