Power System Stability:

• The stability of an interconnected power

system is its ability to return to normal or
stable operation after having been
subjected to some kind of disturbance
• Conversely, instability means a condition
denoting loss of synchronism or falling out
of step for various interconnected
synchronous machines
Classification of Power System Stability

Power System
stability

Steady State Transient Dynamic

Stability Stability Stability
(1) Steady State Stability:

• Steady state stability is basically concerned with

the determination of the upper limit of the
machine loading before losing synchronism,
provided the loading is small and increased
gradually
• The load is assumed to be applied at a rate which
is slow when compared either with the natural
frequency of oscillations of the major parts of the
system or with the rate of change of field flux in
rotating machine in response to the change in
loading

3
(1.a) Steady State Stability Limit:

• When the load on the system is

increased gradually, the maximum
power that can be transmitted without
losing synchronism is termed as steady
state stability limit

4
(2) Transient Stability

• When a sudden disturbance occurs on

power system, rotor speeds, rotor
angular differences and power transfer
undergo fast changes whose
magnitudes are dependent upon the
severity of disturbance
• For the some kind of disturbance,
these changes may be so large as to
cause the machines to fall out of step
5
• So, transient stability refers to the
maximum flow of power possible through a
point without losing the stability with
sudden and large changes in network
conditions
• Transient stability is a fast phenomena
usually occurring within 1 sec for a
generator close to the disturbance

6
Different types disturbances involved in transient
stability study

• Sudden change in mechanical / Electrical

Power
• Fault nearer to generator
• Fault over the transmission line (either at
the ends or in middle of line)
• Tripping of a loaded generator
• Abrupt dropping of large load

7
(3) Dynamic Stability:

• Small disturbances such as small and gradual

variations in loading, change in turbine speed etc
are continuously occurring in a power system
• These changes are small enough not to cause the
system to lose synchronism but do excite the
system into the state of natural oscillations
• The system is said to be dynamically stable if the
oscillations do not acquire more than certain
amplitude and die out quickly (i.e. system is well
damped)

8
• If these oscillation amplitude is large and
persists for a long time, the system is said to be
dynamically unstable (i.e. system is said to be
under-damped)
• This kind of instability behavior constitutes a
serious threat to system security and creates
very difficult operating conditions
• Dynamic stability study has to be carried out for
generally 5 – 10 sec and sometimes to 30 sec
• Dynamic stability can be significantly improved
through the use of Power System Stabilizer
(PSS)
9
 Lecture:
Dynamics of Synchronous Machine

10
 R

Y’
N

B’

STATOR
Rotor

B
S
Y

R’

11
 ER

Y’
N

B’

B
S
EB Y EY

Mechanical Torque

R’

12
0 60 120 180 240 300 360

13
 ER

Y’
N
S
δ B’

B δ N

EB S
Y EY

R’

14
Turbine Speed = 3000 rpm
ER
Rotor Speed = 3000 rpm = Ns
No of poles = 2 R

Y’
N

S δ B’

B δ N

EB S
Y EY

R’ Ns = 120 * f / P
f = P * Ns / 120
= 2 * 3000 / 120 15
= 50 Hz
Imposed by turbine Accelerating Torque Ta = Tm - Te

Tm When Tm = Te, Ta = 0

Te No acceleration of rotor

δ
No deceleration of rotor
Imposed by
Electrical
Load

Te = Pe / w = Vs Vr sinδ / X

δ
Both stator and rotor field
will rotate at synchronous
speed

There will not be any

variation in load angle δ Angle δ remains at δ = δ0
w.r.t. time as long as Tm = Te
16
 Accelerating Torque Ta = Tm - Te

When Tm != Te, Ta != 0

if Tm > Te ,
Acceleration of rotor

if Tm < Te ,
Deceleration of rotor

Rotor will experience

accelerating / decelerating
force

Load angle δ will

oscillate about the
synchronously rotating
stator field w.r.t. time

The boundaries for load angle δ swing (δmax & δmin) are decided on the
basis of net accelerating / decelerating torque 17
• The load angle depends upon the loading on
the machine
• Larger the loading, larger is the load angle δ

• In case the load is added or removed from

the shaft of synchronous machine, the rotor
will decelerate or accelerate accordingly
w.r.t. synchronously rotating stator field
and a relative motion starts
• Hence the rotor is said to be swinging w.r.t
stator field
18
Swing Equation:
The equation giving the relative motion of
the rotor (load angle δ) w.r.t. stator field
as function of time is called swing
equation

19
 Derivation for Power Angle Curve

|E1’| 2 |E2’|
1

r r

E1' E2'
P12  Pe  Pmax sin  Pmax 
X
X  transfer reac tan ce between nodes (i.e. between E1' & E2' )

20
 Pe P12  Pe  Pmax sin 
Pm=Pe,max=Pmax
=100 MW

Pm1= Pe1=PmaxSinδ1
= 75 MW

Pm0= Pe0=Pmax Sinδ0

=50 MW

δ=0 δ0=30 δ1=60 δmax=90 δ’1=120 δ’2=150

The curve is obtained by changing value of δ and get value of Pe; keeping Pmax
constant; join all points and get the curve 21
 Derivation of Synchronizing Coefficients

• On power angle curve Pe --> δ, consider an

operating point δ=30
• At this point, the mechanical power input Pm
equals the electrical power output Pe
• In the same curve, it is also seen that Pe
equals Pm at δ = 150 and this might appear to
be an equally acceptable operating point.
However, this is now shown not be the case

22
• The common requirement for an acceptable
operating point is that the generator should not
lose the synchronism when small temporary
changes occur in the electrical - mechanical power
balance
• To examine this requirement, for constant
mechanical input power Pm, consider small
incremental changes in operating point parameters,
that is, consider
  0   Eq. (1.a)

Pe  Pe 0  Pe Eq. (1.b)

• Subscript zero denotes the steady state operating point values

• Subscript delta identifies the incremental variations from those
values
23
 Substitute eq (1) in Pe  Pmax sin 
Eq. (2)
Pe 0  Pe  Pmax sin  0    
 Pmax  sin  0 cos    cos  0 sin   

sin ce,   is a small increment displacement  0

sin      cos    1

Eq.(2) becomes
Pe 0  Pe  Pmax sin  0   Pmax cos  0    Eq. (3)

24
 Also, Pm  Pe 0  Pmax sin  0
From eq (3) Pe 0  Pe  Pm   Pmax cos  0   

 Pm   Pe 0  Pe     Pmax cos  0    Eq. (4)

H d2
Swing Equation is given by  Pm  Pe Eq. (5)
 f dt 2

Substitute eq (4) in eq (5)

H d 2

 0   
 Pm   Pe 0  Pe 
f dt 2

25
 Since  0 is cons tan t value, we get
H d 2  Eq. (6)
  Pmax cos  0     0
 f dt 2

Noting that Pmax cos  0 is the slope of power angle curve at  0 ,

dPe
we denote this slope as S P and defined as S P  ,
d
where S P is known as synchronizing coefficient

dPe
 SP   Pmax cos  0 Eq. (7)
d 0

26
 H d 
2
Make use of eq (7) in eq(6), we get  SP   0
 f dt 2

d 2   f S P
 2    0 Eq. (8)
dt H
• This is a linear, second order differential
equation, the solution to which depends upon
the algebraic sign of SP.

27
 Now,
H d 2   dP 
    0
 f dt 2
 d  0

d
put p 
dt Eq. (9)
 dP 
 M p 
2
   0
 d  0

• The system stability to small changes is determine from

the characteristic equation given in Eq. (9).
1
   Pe d 0  2
Roots of eq(9) are, P     Eq. (10)
 M 

28
 Roots of Eq.(10)
  Pe d     Pe d  
P P
M M
When (∂Pe/∂δ)0 is positive   Pe d     Pe d  
P P
M M

j 2  Pe d   j 2  Pe d  
P P
M M

Pj
 Pe d 
Pj
 Pe d 
M M
• As long as (∂Pe/∂δ)0 is positive, the roots are purely imaginary and
conjugate and the system behavior is oscillatory about δ0
• Line resistance and damper windings of machine, which have been
ignored in the above modeling, cause the system oscillation to decay
• The system is therefore stable for a small increment in power as long
as (∂Pe/∂δ)0 > 0
29
 Roots of Eq.(10)
  Pe d    Pe d 
P P
M M
When (∂Pe/∂δ)0 is -ve   Pe d     Pe d  
P P
M M

P 
 Pe d 
P
 Pe d 
M M

• When (∂Pe/∂δ)0 is negative, the roots are real, one

positive and the other negative but of equal magnitude
• The torque angle therefore increases without bound upon
occurrence of a small power increment (disturbance) and
the synchronism is soon lost
• The system is therefore unstable for (∂Pe/∂δ)0 < 0

30
 If ∂Pe/∂δ is +ve, Calculate ∂Pe/∂δ i.e. If ∂Pe/∂δ is –ve,
Roots are imaginary P2 – P1 / δ2 – δ1 Roots are real, first +ve and
and conjugate second - ve

Pe
(0.545 – 0.5)/(33 - 30) (0.545 – 0.5)/(147 - 150)
=0.1816 =- 0.1816

Stable Unstable

Pm1= Pe1=PmaxSinδ1 Pm1= Pe1=PmaxSinδ1

= 0.545 Pmax MW = 0.545 Pmax MW

Pm0= Pe0=Pmax Sinδ0 Pm0= Pe0=Pmax Sinδ0

=0.5 Pmax MW =0.5 Pmax MW

δ1=33 δ’1=147 δmax=180

δ
δ=0 δ0=30 δmax=90 δ’0=150

31
Equal area criteria for transient stability
study

32
 Increase Mechanical i/p

Pe

d
Pe2=Pmax Sinδmax>Pm1

Pa= Pm1 – Pe2 <0

A2
c b e
Pm1 =Pe1=Pmax Sinδ1

Pa= Pm1 - Pe0 =0 A1

Pa= Pm1 - Pe0

a
Pm0= Pe0=Pmax Sinδ0

δ = 40

δ=0 δ = δ0=30 δ = δ1=60 δ = δ2=80 δ=180

ω = ωS ω > ωS ω = ωS
δ
ω < ωS 33
 Increase Mechanical i/p

Pe

Pe2=Pmax Sinδmax>Pm1

Pa= Pm1 – Pe2 <0

A2
Pm1 =Pe1=Pmax Sinδ1

Pa= Pm1 - Pe0 =0 A1

Pa= Pm1 - Pe0

Pm0= Pe0=Pmax Sinδ0

δ = 40

δ=0 δ = δ0=30 δ = δ1=60 δ = δ2=80 δ=180

ω = ωS ω > ωS ω = ωS
δ
ω < ωS 34
 Equal Area Criteria for Transient Stability Study

• The transient stability study involves the

determination of whether or not synchronism is
maintained after the machine has been
subjected to severe disturbance
• The disturbance may be sudden application of
load, loss of generation, loss of large load, or a
fault on the system
• In most disturbances, oscillations are of such
magnitude that linerization is not permissible
and non linear swing equation must be solved

35
• A method known as Equal Area Criteria
can be used for a quick prediction of
stability
• This method is based on graphical
interpretation of the energy stored in the
rotating mass as an aid to determine if the
machine maintains its stability after a
disturbance

• This method is only applicable to one

machine system connected to infinite bus or
a two machine system.
36
• Consider a single machine connected to infinite
bus, the swing equation with damping neglected is
given by 2
H d 
 Pm  Pe  Pa Eq. (1)
 f dt 2

where
Pm  Mechanical Power (i / p )
Pe  Electrical Power (o / p )
Pa is accelerating power
d 2  f
• From Eq. (1) 2
  Pm  Pe  Eq. (2)
dt H

d
Multiplying both sides of above equation by 2 , we get
dt
d  d 2 2 f d
2 2
  m e
P  P
dt dt H dt
37
 This may be written as
d  d   2  2 f d
    Pm  Pe 
dt  dt  
  H dt

or
Integrating both sides

d 2 f
  P  Pe  d

 d  2 f
2

  
 dt  H   P
m  Pe  d  dt H 0
m

0
Eq. (3)

• Where, δ0 is the initial rotor angle before it

begins to swing due to disturbance
• Eq.(3) gives the relative speed of machine
w.r.t synchronously revolving reference
frame.
38
• For stability studies, this speed must
becomes zero at some time after the
disturbance i.e. dδ / dt = 0
• Therefore, from Eq. (3), the stability
criteria can be written as


   P
m  Pe  d   0 Eq. (4)

39
• The condition for stability can therefore be
stated as:
the system is stable if the area under Pa
(accelerating power) – δ curve reduces to
zero at some time.
In other words, the positive area (accelerating )
area under Pa – δ curve must equal the
negative ( decelerating) area and hence the
name ‘equal area’ criterion of stability

40
Case of Sudden Application of
Mechanical Input

41
• Consider a machine operating at the
equilibrium point δ0, corresponding to
mechanical power input Pm0 = Pe0.
• Consider a sudden step increase in
input power ( by opening the steam
valve) represented by the horizontal
line Pm1.

42
• Since Pm1 > Pe0, the accelerating power on
the rotor is +ve and the power angle δ
increases.
• The excess energy stored in the rotor
during the initial acceleration is given by:
1

Pe
  P m1  Pe  d   area abc  area A1 Eq. (5)
0

A2
Pm1 c b e
A1

Pm0= Pe0
a

δ=180
δ=0 δ
δ = δ0 δ = δ1 δ = δ2
43
• With increase in δ, the electrical power
increases, and when δ = δ1, the electrical
power matches the new input power Pm1.
• Even though the accelerating power is zero
at this point, the rotor is running above the
synchronous speed; hence, δ and electrical
power Pe will continue to increase.
• Now Pm < Pe, causing the rotor to decelerate
toward synchronous speed until δ = δ2.

44
• According to Eq. (4), the rotor must swing past
point b until an equal amount of energy is given up
by the rotating masses.
• The energy given up by the rotor as it decelerate
back to synchronous speed is:
2

  P  P 
e m1 d   area bdc  area A2 Eq. (6)
1

For the system to be stable:

area A1  area A2 Eq. (7)

45
• This is known as Equal Area Criteria.
• The rotor angle would then oscillate back
and forth between δ0 and δ2 at its natural
frequency
• The damping present in the machine will
cause these oscillations to subside and the
new steady state operation would be
established at point b

Pm1  Pe  Pmax sin 1

46
 (1) Sudden change in Mechanical Input

|E’|
X’d Xe Infinite Bus Bar
Pm
|V| 0

• Figure shows the transient model of a single

machine tied to infinite bus.
• The electrical power transmitted is given by:

'
E V
Pe  sin   Pmax sin 
X  Xe
'
d

47
 (1) Sudden change in Mechanical Input

• Under steady operating condition:

Pm0 = Pe0 = Pmax sinδ0
• This is indicated by the point a in the Pe  δ curve

Pe
d

Pm1 c b A2
e figure (2)
A1

Pm0= Pe0=Pmax Sinδ0 a

δ=180
δ=0 δ
δ = δ0 δ = δ1 δ = δ2 48
• Let the mechanical input to the rotor be suddenly
increased to Pm1 (by opening the steam valve)
• The accelerating power Pa = Pm1 – Pe causes the
rotor speed to increase (w > ws) and so does the
rotor angle

• At angle δ1, Pa = Pm1 – Pe ( = Pmax Sinδ1) = 0

( state point at b) but the rotor angle continues to
increase as w > ws
• Pa now becomes negative ( decelerating), the rotor speed
begins to reduce but the angle continues to increase till
at angle δ2, w = ws once again (state point at c), the
decelerating area A2 equals the accelerating area
2
A1 (areas are shaded), i.e.
 P a d  0
0
49
• Since the rotor is decelerating, the speed
reduces below ws and the rotor angle begins
to reduce
• The state point now traverses the Pe  δ
curve in opposite direction as indicated by
arrow
• It can be seen that the system oscillates about
the new steady state point b (δ = δ1) with angle
excursion up to δ0 to δ2 on the two sides.
• These oscillations are similar to the simple
harmonic motion of an inertia – spring system
except that these are not sinusoidal
50
• As the oscillations decay out because of
inherent system damping (not modeled), the
system settles to the steady state where
Pm1 = Pe = Pmax Sinδ1

• From figure (2), areas A1 and A2 are given

by:
1 2
A1    P
m1  Pe  d  A2    P  P 
e m1 d
0 1

51
• For the system to be stable, it should be possible
to find angle δ2 such that A1 = A2.
• As Pm1 is increased, a limiting condition is finally
reached when A1 equals the area above Pm1 line as
shown in figure (3)
• Under this condition, δ2 acquires the maximum
value such that:

 2  1  
 2    1
Pm1
 2    sin
1
  max
Pmax
52
• Any further increase in Pm1 means that the area available for A2 is
less than A1, so that the excess K.E. causes δ to increase beyond
point c and the decelerating power changes over to accelerating
power, with the system consequently becoming unstable.

• It has thus been shown by use of equal area criterion that

there is an upper limit to sudden increase in mechanical
input (Pm1 – Pm0), for the system in question to remain
stable. Pe2
>=Pm1
Pe Pe figure (3)
Pe2
Green is A2
>Pm1 margin Pm1 =Pe1
A2
A1
Pm1 No
A1 margin
Pm0 Pm0
= Pe0 = Pe0

δ δ
δ=0 δ0 δ1 δ2 δ=180 δ0 δ1 δ2 = δmax δ=180
Not equal δmax ω = ωS ω > ωS ω = ωS
To ω < ωS
δmax 53
• It may be noted that the system will remain stable even though the rotor may
oscillate beyond δ = 900, so long as the equal area criterion is met.
• The condition of δ = 900 is meant for use in steady state stability only and does
not apply to transient stability case
Pe

δ1=30 δ=30

+ δ4=150 = δ=180

δ
δ=0 δ1=30 δ2=60 δ=90 δ3=120 δ4=150 δmax=180
54
 MATLAB Simulation for Equal Area Criteria
Initial power = 0.600 p.u. Initial power = 0.000 p.u.
Initial power angle = 16.791 degrees Initial power angle = 0.000 degrees
Sudden additional power = 1.084 p.u. Sudden additional power = 1.505 p.u.
Total power for critical stability = 1.684 p.u. Total power for critical stability = 1.505 p.u.
Maximum angle swing =125.840 degrees Maximum angle swing =133.563 New
New operating angle = 54.160 degrees operating angle = 46.437 degrees

55
Application of Equal area criteria for finding
the fault clearing time and examples

56
 (2) Fault at generator end and effect of clearing time on
stability

• Let the system be operating with mechanical input

Pm at steady angle of δ0 (Pm = Pe) as shown by
point a on Pe  δ curve
• If a three phase fault occurs at the point P of the
outgoing radial line, the electrical output of the
generator instantly reduces to zero, i.e. Pe =
0 and the state point drops to point b

57
 Pe

Pe2=Pmax Sinδ2>Pm0

Pe1=Pmax Sinδc

Pa= Pe1 > Pm <0 A2

Pm0 = Pe0=Pmax Sinδ0

Pe0=0

Pa= Pm0 – 0
A1
=Pm0

δ=0 δ = δ0=30 δ = δC=60 δ2 =100 δ=180

ω = ωS
ω > ωS ω = ωS δ
ω < ωS 58
• The acceleration area A1 begins to
increase and so does the rotor angle
while the state point moves along bc
• At time tc corresponding to angle δc
the faulted line is cleared by the
opening of the line CB
• The values of tc and δc are respectively
known as clearing time and clearing
angle

59
• The system once again becomes healthy
and transmits Pe = Pmax Sinδ i.e. the
state point shifts to point d on the
original Pe δ curve
• The rotor now decelerates and the
decelerating area A2 begins while the
state point moves along de

60
• If an angle δ1 can be found such that A2 = A1, the
system is found to be stable
• The system finally settles down to the steady
state operating point a in an oscillatory manner
because of inherent damping.

• The value of clearing time corresponding to a

clearing angle can be established only by numerical
integration except in this sample case
• The equal area criteria therefore gives only
qualitative answer to system stability as time when
the breaker should be opened is hard to establish

61
Effect of clearing time on stability

• As the clearing of the faulty line is delayed, A1

increases and so does δ1 to find A2 = A1 till δ1 =
δmax as shown in figure
• For clearing time (or angle) larger than this
value, the system would be unstable as A2<A1
• The maximum allowable value of the clearing
time and angle for the system to remain stable
are known as critical clearing time and angle

62
 0   ma x     ma x     0

Pe

Pe1=Pmax Sinδcr

A
Pm0 = Pe0=Pmax Sinδ0
2

A1

δ=0 δ = δ0 δ = δCr δmax δ=180 δ

63
Derive critical clearing time and critical clearing angle

 0   max     max     0 Eq. 1

Pm  Pe  Pmax sin  0 Eq. 2

 critical

Now A 1   P m  0  d   Pm  critical   0 
0

 max
A2   P max sin   Pm  d 
critical

 Pmax  cos  critical  cos  max   Pm  max   critical 

64
Derive critical clearing time and critical clearing angle

For the system to be stable, A2=A1, which yields

Pm  critical   0   Pmax  cos  critical  cos  max   Pm  max   critical 

 Pm critical  Pm 0  Pmax  cos  critical  cos  max   Pm max  Pm critical
 Pm max  Pm 0  Pmax  cos  critical  cos  max 
 Pm  max   0   Pmax cos  critical  Pmax cos  max
 Pmax cos  critical  Pm  max   0   Pmax cos  max

65
 Pm
 cos  critical   max   0   cos  max Eq. 3
Pmax

with the use of eq.1 and eq.2 in eq.3

 cos  critical  sin  0    0   0   cos    0 
 cos  critical  sin  0   2 0   cos  0
Eq. 4
  critical  cos   2  0  sin  0  cos  0 
1

where,  critical  Critical Clearing Angle

66
During the period the fault is persisting , the swing equation is given by
d 2  f Eq. 5
2
 Pm ; Pe  0
dt H

 f
Integrating twice;   Pm t 2   0
2H

 f
or  critical  2
Pm tcritical  0 Eq. 6
2H

67
 where, tcritical  Critical Clearing Time
 critical  Critical Clearing Angle

2 H  critical    0
tcritical  Eq. 7
 f Pm
Where,  critical  cos 1   2  0  sin  0  cos  0 

68
 Application of Equal area criteria for stability
study while sudden loss of one of the parallel
lines, Fault on one of the parallel lines,
reclosing and examples

69
 (3.a) Sudden Loss of One of Parallel Lines

|E’| X1
Xd

Pm Infinite Bus Bar

X2
|V| 0
EV
Pe I  sin  Pe I  Pmax, I sin 
X d  X 1 || X 2
|E’| X1
Xd

Pm Infinite Bus Bar

|V| 0

E V
Pe II  sin  Pe II  Pmax, II sin 
X d  X1
70
 EV E V
Pe I  sin  Pe II  sin 
1 X d  X 1 || X 2 X d  X1
 Pmax, I sin   Pmax, II sin 
0.9
 (1)sin   (0.75) sin 
0.8
Angle Pe, I Pe, II
0.7 0 0 0
10 0.1736 0.1302
Power(Pe)

0.6 20 0.3419 0.2564

30 0.4998 0.3748
Both Lines In 40 0.6425 0.4819
0.5
One Line Out 50 0.7658 0.5743
60 0.8658 0.6493
0.4 0.3419
70 0.9395 0.7046
80 0.9847 0.7385
0.3 90 1 0.75
100 0.985 0.7387
0.2564
0.2 110 0.94 0.705
120 0.8666 0.6499
0.1 130 0.7668 0.5751
Load Angle (Degree) 140 0.6437 0.4828
0 150 0.5011 0.3759
160 0.3434 0.2575
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
170 0.1751 0.1313
180 0.0016 0.0012

71
 X1 X1

Pe Pe1 Pe2
X2

Pre fault Curve, Pe,I

Pe,II=Pmax,II Sinδ2
>Pm0
Pm0= Pe1=Pmax,I Sinδ0

Pa= Pm0-Pe,II
Pa= Pe,I-Pe,II

Pe,II=Pmax,II Sinδ0
Post fault Curve, Pe,II

δ=0 δ = δ0=30 δ1=50 δ2 =80 δ=180

ω = ωS ω > ωS ω = ωS δ
72
 (3.b) Short Circuit Away From Line Ends

|E’| X1
Xd

Pm Infinite Bus Bar

X2
|V| 0

• When the fault occurs away from the line ends (say in the
middle of the line), there is some power flow during the
fault though considerable reduced
• Circuit model of the system during such a fault is shown in
figure
Xd X1 Xinf

X2/2 X2/2

73
 Xd X1 Xinf

X2/2 X2/2

Xd X1 Xinf

X2/2 Xa Xb X2/2

Xc

( X1 )  X 2 / 2  ( X1 )  X 2 / 2 ( X 2 / 2)  X 2 / 2 
Xa  Xb  Xc 
X1  X 2 / 2  X 2 / 2 X1  X 2 / 2  X 2 / 2 X1  X 2 / 2  X 2 / 2

74
Xd Xa Xb Xinf

Xc

X1 =Xd + Xa X2 = Xb + Xinf

Xc

X1 X 2
X II  X 1  X 2 
Xc

75
 MATLAB Simulation for Equal Area Criteria
Initial power angle = 27.387 Initial power angle = 27.387
Maximum angle swing = 152.613 Maximum angle swing = 148.668
Critical clearing angle = 83.255 Critical clearing angle = 99.808

76
 Lecture : 28
2.10 Point – By – Point Method for solution of
swing equation and examples

77
Point by Point Solution of Swing Equation
• In most practical system, after machine lumping
has been done, there are still more than two
machines to be considered from the point of view
of system stability
• Therefore, there is no choice and it must be
necessary to solve the swing equation of each
machine by a numerical technique in the digital
computer
• Even in the case of a single machine tied to infinite
bus bar, the critical clearing time can not be
obtained from equal area criteria and we have to
make this calculation numerically through swing
equation
78
• There are several sophisticated methods now
available for the solution of the swing equation
including the powerful Runga – Kutta method
• Here we shall treat the point by point method of
solution which is a conventional, approximate
method like all numerical methods but a well tried
and proven one
• We shall illustrate the Point-By-Point method for
one machine tied to infinite bus bar. The
procedure is, however, general and can be applied
to every machine of a multi machine system

79
 Consider the Swing Equation
H d 2
 Pm  Pe
 f dt 2

H d 2
  Pm  Pmax sin 
 f dt 2

H d 2
  Pa
 f dt 2

d 2 Pa  f
 2
 Eq.(1)
dt M H
• The solution of Eq. (1) gives a plot of δ Vs time t
• This graph is known as Swing Curve
• If a swing curve indicated that δ starts decreasing after
reaching a maximum value, the system can be assumed to
be stable
80
Assumptions

(1)The accelerating power Pa computed at the

beginning of an interval is assumed to remain
constant from the middle of the preceding
interval to the middle of the interval being
considered
(2)The angular rotor velocity w = dδ/dt (over
and above synchronous speed) is assumed
constant throughout any interval, at the
value computed for the middle of the
interval
81
 Pa

Pa(n-2)
Discrete Solun
Pa(n-1) Continuous Solun

Pa(n)

t/
n - 5/2 n - 2 n - 3/2 n-1 n - 1/2 n n+1 Δt
w
One interval

w(n - 1/2)
w(n - 1/2)- w(n - 3/2)
w(n - 3/2)
t/
n-2 n - 3/2 n-1 n - 1/2 n n+1 Δt

δ Δt Δt

δ(n)
Δδn =δ(n)- δ(n-1)
δ(n-1)
Δδn-1 =δ(n-1)- δ(n-2)
δ(n-2)
t/
n-2 n-1 n n+1
82
Δt
83