MMM Class - 2-3

GMR Institute of Technology, Rajam
26-Jul-19
GMR Institute of Technology
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Mrs. A. L.Naidu, Asst. Prof.
Course Title: Mechanical Measurement and Metrology
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Evocation
Topic # 1
Evocation
Topic # 2
Measurement Of Displacement
Objectives and Outcomes
Objectives
The students will be able to learn to:
1. Explain the importance of Displacement Measurement
2. Classify the various types of Displacement Measurement
Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session, students will able to
1. Explain the concept of “Displacement Measurement”

2. Classify the different types of Transducers
3. Develop a correlation between the Mechanical Transducers and
Electrical Transducers
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Transducers
for
Displacement Measurement
5
Transducers
A device that transform input physical variables into a
convenient and more usual form of output is called a

transducer
Transducers
• Sensor is an element which first detects the

measurand and, it is in contact with the process.
Examples:
Diaphragm
spindle of a dial gauge.
• If sensor is used to transduce the measurand, then

the sensor is called "detector transducer".
• Types : Mechanical
Electrical
Transducers
Classification:
1. Primary / Secondary transducers.

2. Active /Passive transducers.
3. Analog/ Digital transducers
4. Mechanical, Electrical and Opto- electrical

transducers.
1.Primary and Secondary Transducers
Primary Transducers :
A transducer that reacts directly to the change in the
quantity to be measured .
Ex :
Diaphragm in a pressure gauge
Secondary Transducers :
If an element which converts the output from the
primary transducer into more usable form, frequently to an
electrical signal .
Ex :
Capacitance transducer attached to a Bellows gauge
2.Active and Passive Transducers :
Active Transducers :
"If energy required for conversion of input signal is

entirely taken from the measurand (i.e. input) .
Ex :
Piezoelectric and Photovoltaic transducers
Passive Transducers :
The energy required for signal conversion is entirely

taken from an auxiliary power source .
Ex :
Resistance Thermometer,
LVDT
3.Analog and Digital Transducers :
Analog Transducers :
If the variation of output is continuous with the
variation of input
Ex :
Bourdon tube pressure gauge
Digital Transducers :
If the variation of output is discrete or vary in steps with
the variation of input
Ex :
Photo electric pick-up for speed measurement
4.Mechanical, Electrical and Optical Transducers
Mechanical Transducers :
Which convert input signal into an output signal which is

often displacement. This displacement inturn can be indicated by
the movement of a pointer-on a calibrated scale .
Ex : Bourdon tube pressure gauge,

Mercury-in-glass thermometer.
Electro-Mechanical transducers :
Which convert mechanical quantities such as displacement,

velocity, force, pressure, torque and temperature into electrical
quantities such as a change in resistance, inductance, capacitance,
voltage, etc
4.Mechanical, Electrical and Optical Transducers
Electro-optical Transducers :
Which combine optical, electronic and electrical

principles.
There are some light sensitive materials which

change their electrical properties when subjected to light.
The output is mainly a function of intensity of the

incident light. Hence when a light source is attached to a
moving object, the output can be related to the movement of
the body.
Advantages of
Electrical/Electronic Transducers Over Mechanical Transducers :

Advantages :
1.Mass and inertia effects are minimized.
2. Amplification (or) attenuation is easy.

3. The effect of friction is minimized.
4. They are compact in size.
5. Remote indication is possible.
6. Power consumption is less and loading errors

are minimum.
Limitations of Electrical/Electronic Transducers Over Mechanical Transducers
Limitations :
1. Fragile construction.
2. They need external power supply.
3. Instrument electrical properties may change the actual

reading of the variable which is to be measured.
Classification of Transducers based on the Principle of Operation
l.Variable resistance transducers.
2.Variable inductance transducers.
3.Variable capacitance transducers.

4.Piezo electric transducers.
5.Photo-electric (or) Light detecting transducers.

(a)Photo emissive
(b)Photo conductive
(c)Photo voltaic
6.Ionisation transducers.
Variable Resistance Transducers
1.Variable resistance transducers
Resistance of an electrical conductor is given by

.
Where,
R = Resistance
 = Resistivity of the conductor
L= Length of the conductor in

A = Cross sectional Area of the metal conductor
The electrical resistance can be varied by varying

(i) Length
(ii) Cross sectional Area.
(iii) Resistivity or combination of these.
. :
Principle
A change in resistance of a circuit due to the displacement
of an object is the measure of displacement of that object.
Potentiometric Transducers (Sliding Contact Devices) :
These transducers convert mechanical displacement (input)

into an electrical output. i.e. either voltage or current.
A resistance potentiometer called as 'POT' consists of a

resistive element provided with a sliding contact. Usually, the

resistance element is formed by winding a resistance wire around an
insulating core or base.
Wire material: Copper- nickel

Nickel-chromium
Silver-Palladium.
Potentiometric Transducers (Sliding Contact Devices) :

1.In operation, the guide rod is connected to the body whose
displacement is to be measured.
2.The motion of the guide rod sweeps the slider on the

potentiometer.
3.The length of the conductor i.e. Resistance is proportional to

the position of the slider.
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Potentiometric Transducers (Rolling Contact Devices) :
To measure the angular displacements, the resistance element is
formed into an arc as shown in Fig.
When the shaft rotates, the slider which is attached to the shaft
sweeps past the resistance element, thus changing the resistance
of the circuit.
The change in resistance is the measure of displacement of the

object.
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Advantages and dis advantages
• Available In different shapes and sizes
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• Less expensive
• High output
• Rugged construction
• Intensive to vibration and temperature
Dis advantages
• Limited life due to wear and tear of the sliding
arm
• In high speed operation , the transduces is noisy
and erratic
• Limited resolution
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Applications
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• Temperature measurement
• Strain measurement
• Force measurement
• Flow measurement
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Variable Inductance Transducers
•It consists of magnetic field and core such that a gap exists
between the core and the field coils.
•If the reluctance of a magnetic circuit is altered, then

both the inductance and inductive reactance of the coils in the
circuit get changed.
The Inductance can be varied by changing any one of the following

parameters
1. Effective permeability.
2. Area of cross section of the coil.
3. Length of the coil.
4. Number of turns in the coil.
Classification:
1. Variable self-inductance transducers. (Single Coil)
2. Variable mutual inductance transducers ( Two coil and Three coil)
Variable self Inductance Transducers
• When the input (displacement) is given to the armature,

the permeance of the flux path generated by the coil gets changed,
there by changing the inductance.
• The change in flux path is mainly due to change in the air gap.
Variable self Inductance Transducers
Relative inductance of the two coils get changed when

the core or armature is given a movement.
Variable Mutual Inductance Transducers
These transducers use multiple coils.
The mutual Inductance between two coils is given by
The mutual inductance can be altered either by changing the self

inductance (or) the coefficient of coupling.
Variable Mutual Inductance Transducers
Coil 1 is excited by an external source of alternating current.
The flux coupling of the output coil 2 (pickup coil) depends on the
air gap.
In operation, when the armature is connected to a member

whose displacement is to be measured, the air gap gets altered
resulting a change in the output voltage of coil 2.
The change in output voltage of the pickup coil is the

measure of displacement of the member.
LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformer

LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
It is a Three coil Variable mutual inductance transducer

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
LVDT is a three coil variable mutual inductance transducer.
i.e.,one primary coil (P) and two secondary coils S1 and S2
which are symmetrically placed with respect to the primary coil as shown.
It converts linear displacement into an electrical signal .

i.e. voltage
The number of turns in each secondary coil are same and are
wound on a cylindrical former.
 A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former.

.
 Iron core is generally made of high permeability Nickel-iron material

which is hydrogen annealed and is attached to the body whose
displacement is to be measured.
The entire assembly is placed inside a housing.

When an a.c current is supplied to the primary coil, an alternating

magnetic field is genetated in the circuit.
 This magnetic field is disturbed by the armature which is connected to

a moving body.
A voltage is developed in the two secondary coils due to the

disturbances in the magnetic field
As the two secondary coils are connected in series, the output is equal
to the algebraic sum of the voltages developed in the two secondary coils.
As the two secondary coils are connected in series, the output is equal
to the algebraic sum of the voltages developed in the two secondary coils.
Condition
ES1=ES2 ES1>ES2 ES2>ES1
Output
voltage
zero ES1-ES2 ES2-ES1
Operation:
when the core is at the centre, the flux linkages with both the secondary
coils are same and hence equal emfs are induced in them, giving zero
output voltage.
i.e., ES1= ES2
Output=zero
The position of the core at zero output voltage is called null position.
Operation:
When the core is moved to the left of the null position, more magnetic
field linkages occurs with the winding S1 and less with the winding S2.
i.e., ES1> ES2
output = ES1- ES2
which is in phase with E .

Operation:
Similarly when the core is moved to the right of the null position, more
magnetic field linkages occurs with the winding S2 . and less with S1.
i.e.,ES2 > ESI
output = ES2 -ES1 ,
which is in phase with ES2.

Different core positions and the corresponding

output voltages are shown below.
Advantages of LVDT :
1. The output voltage of an LVDT and the input displacement have

a linear relationship for displacements upto 5 cm
Advantages of LVDT :
1. The output voltage of an LVDT and the input displacement have

a linear relationship for displacements upto 5 mm
2.High resolution.
3.High output voltage.

4.High sensitivity.
5.Rugged construction.
6.As there are no sliding contacts, friction is minimum.
7.Low Hysteresis and hence repeatability is high.
8.Low power consumption.

Disadvantages of LVDT :
I.LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
2.Dynamic response is limited.

3.Temperature effects the performance of the transducer.

Applications of LVDT :
1.It can be used to measure displacements ranging from fractions of

mm to a few centimetres.
2.It can be used as a secondary transducer in the measurement of

force, weight, pressure etc .
RVDT
Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
It is also a Three coil Variable mutual inductance transducer

Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)
It is similar to the LVDT except that its core is cam shaped and may be
rotated between the windings by means of a shaft.

Null position ACW CW

Conditio
n
ES1=ES2 ES1>ES2 ES2>ES1
Output
voltage
zero ES1-ES2 ES2-ES1
At the null position of the core the output voltages of the secondary
windings S1 and S2 are equal and opposition.
Therefore, the net output is zero.
 Any angular displacement from the null position will result in a

differential voltage output.
The greater this angular displacement, the greater will be the

differential output. Hence the response of the transducer is linear.
Clockwise rotation produces an increasing voltage of 'a secondary

winding of one phase while counter clock-wise rotation produces an
increasing voltage of opposite phase.
 Hence, the amount of angular displacement and its direction may be

obtained from the magnitude and phase of the output voltage of the
transducer.
Capacitive Transducers
 A Capacitor consists two or more metal plate

conductors which are separated by a medium.
 When a voltage is applied across the plates, equal

and opposite electric charges are generated on the plates.
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
Any phenomenon that causes a change in any of the

parameters of equation can be measured by measuring
change in the capacitance of the capacitor.
1.Change of Capacitance with Change in Area of Overlap :
a. Parallel Plate Capacitive Transducer :
It consists of a fixed plate and a moving plate.
Moving plate is connected to the moving object whose

displacement is being measured
 When the overlapping area of plates changes in accordance with the

displacement of the moving object, the capacitance of the capacitive
transducer gets changed.
Capacitance of a parallel two plate capacitor is given by

1.Change of Capacitance with Change in Length of Overlap :
b. Cylindrical Capacitive Transducer :
The capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor is given by
Where,
L=Overlapping length between the fixed cylinder & movable tube
1.Change of Capacitance with Change in Length of Overlap :
b. Cylindrical Capacitive Transducer :
In operation,
When the tube moves left, the overlapping length increases there by
increasing the capacitance.
 Similarly if it moves right, then overlapping length decreases there by

decreasing the capacitance of the capacitor.
The measure of change in capacitance directly indicates the

displacement of the object.
Variation of capacitance with the
displacement of a capacitor working
on the principle of change in
overlapping area/length with the
displacement.
Displacement range :10 to 100mm

Accuracy: 0.005%
Measurement of Angular displacement (changing the overlapping area):
It consists of one fixed plate and one movable plate as shown in the
figure.
 The movable plate is attached to the object whose angular

displacement is to he measured.
Angular displacement of the movable plate changes the overlapping

area, there by changing the capacitance of the capacitor.
The capacitance is maximum when the two plates overlap completely

i.e. when
θ = 180°.
Measurement of Distance between the plates :
When the movable plate moves towards the fixed plate, distance
between them reduces there by increasing the capacitance of the circuit.
 If the movable plate moves away from the fixed plate,. distance (t)
between them increases there by reducing the capacitance of the circuit.
Advantage :
1. Capacitive transducers are extremely sensitive
3. They have good frequency response and hence they are very useful for
dynamic
studies.
4. Loading effects are minimum.
5. The capacitive transducers can he used for applications where stray
magnetic
fields render the inductive transducers useless.
6. As they require small forces for their operation, they need less power.
7. They have good operating range (is 0.1 x 1O -6mm to 30
m).
Disadvantages :
1. All Metallic parts of the capacitor must be insulated.
2. The capacitive transducers show non linear behaviour on account
of edge effects.
Therefore guard rings must he used to eliminate this effect.
Applications :
1 Capacitive transducers can be used to measure Force &
Pressure.
2. They are used in liquid level measurements.
3. These transducers are also used in the measurement of volume,
density and weight.
4. Capacitive transducer are used to measure humidity of gases.
Change of Capacitance with Change in Dielectric Constant.
It consists of two fixed plates and a movable dieiectric material.

 Dielectric material is attached to an object whose displacement is to
be measured.
At x =0. capacitance of the transducer is

When the dielectric material is displaced by a distance 'x' to

the right,
the capacitance changes from C to C + ΔC.
Change in capacitance is proportional to displacement

Piezoelectric Transducers:
Certain materials can generate an electrical charge when
subjected to mechanical strain or conversely they can change their
dimensions when subjected to voltage. This phenomenon is known as
'piezoelectric effect'.
The materials exhibiting this property are called piezo electric materials
Classification of Piezoelectric materials
1.Natural crystals -Quartz, Rochelle salt and Tourmaline.

2. Synthetic crystals - Lithium Sulphate, Ammonium dihydrogen
phosphate and Potassium tartarate.
3. Polarized ferroelectric ceramics -Barium titanate, and certain polymer
films.
Desirable Properties of Piezoelectric Materials:

1. They should have stability.
2. They should give high output.
3. They must be insensitive to temperature extremes and humidity.
4. They must have ability to be formed into any desired shape.
Principle :when the piezoelectric crystals distorted, they produce an

electrical charge.
The most widely used piezoelectric crystals are quartz, barium titanate.
Where, Q is the charge in coulombs

F is the applied force, N
K is the charge sensitivity
The charge at the electrodes gives rise to a voltage.

If C is the capacitance between the electrodes, then
If g & p are known then the thickness of crystal can be obtained by

knowing the output voltage of the circuit.
Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducers:

1. They have High frequency response.
2. They have high output.
3. They are compact in size & rugged construction.
4. They can be used to measure dynamic quantities.
Disadvantages:
1. They cannot be used for measurement of static quantities.

2. Output of a piezoelectric transducer is affected by changes in the
temperature.
3. Steady state response is poor.
Applications:
Piezoelectric transducers are most often used for the measurement of
acceleration, pressure force.
Questions
Remember
• Define measurement
• List out types of measuring systems
• Explain in indirect process of measuring system
Understand
Interpret the meaning of “measuring systems”
Exemplify the application of measuring systems
• What are the various types of performance characteristics of an

instrument? Write a brief note on static characteristics.
. Classify and explain different types of errors that occur in measurements.
Define dynamic error and show how it differs with the type of input signal
applied to the system.
9. Briefly discuss the sources of errors.

Stimulating Question
Summary
Measurement of temperature
• Temperature is one of the most influencing

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factors in controlling the quality of a product in

any process/manufacturing industry.
• However the temperature can be measured
indirectly by measuring the physical properties
like
• pressure,
• electrical properties,
• optical properties etc.,
• as these parameters change with the
temperature
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Classification of Temperature Measuring Instruments:
• Expansion thermometers (Non electrical)
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• Electrical thermometers
• Radiation pyrometers
• Expansion Thermometers:
• Expansion thermometers work on the principle of thermal
expansion. Almost all material expands when they are subjected to
temperature change. This expansion may be due to change in
physical dimensions or change in physical properties like pressure,

volume etc.
• Based on the nature of expansion, expansion thermometers are
classified as:
• Liquid in glass thermometers
• Bimetallic thermometers
• Pressure thermometers
• Liquid filled
• Gas filled
• Vapour filled 87
• Electrical Thermometers:
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• Electrical thermometers work on the principle of change in some electrical

properties when they are subjected to temperature change. Electrical
thermometers are classified into: (i) Resistance thermometers (ii)
Thermocouples.
• Radiation Methods (Pyrometers):
• we need to measure high temperatures which may melt the instrument when
brought in contact. Similarly it is difficult to measure temperature of the
moving bodies and temperature variations over the surface of an object. In
such situations non – contact type temperature measuring instruments are

preferred.
• Pyrometry deals with the measurement of elevated temperatures generally
above 500°C. Radiation pyrometers make use of the radiation emitted from
the hot body. For anybody at temperature above 550 DC, the intensity of
thermal radiation emitted from the body is sufficient to measure its
temperature.
• Radiation Pyrometers are of two types:
• 1. Total Radiation Pyrometers.
• 2. Optical Radiation Pyrometers.
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Liquid in Glass Thermometers:
• It is one of the most commonly used temperature measuring instrument. It works on the
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principle of change in physical dimensions of a liquid when subjected temperature
change .
Description:
• It consists of a large temperature sensing bulb connected at one end of the
capillary tube and a smaller safety bulb connected at the other end of the
capillary as shown in Fig. The smaller bulb acts as a safety reservoir when the
temperature being measured exceeds the measuring range of the thermo
meter. A part of the capillary tube and the sensing bulb is filled with a liquid.
Working:
• In operation, the temperature sensing bulb (larger bulb) is exposed to the
medium whose temperature is to be measured. The liquid in the sensing bulb
expands/ contracts and rises/fall in the capillary tube. This rise/fall in liquid level
is calibrated in terms of the temperature. An ordinary mercury-in-glass
thermometer is an example of a liquid-in-glass thermometer.
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• Desirable Properties of Liquids used In Liquid-In-Glass Thermometer:

• They should have large coefficient of expansion.
• The liquid should not adhere to the capillary walls.

• The liquid should have linear relationship between the dimensional change
& temperature.
• The liquid should be able to operate within a reasonable temperature range
without any phase change.
• The liquid should be clearly visible
• Cost of the liquid should below.
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• Salient Features of Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer:

• Portable in size
• No need of auxiliary power
• Good response, accuracy & Sensitivity
• Low cost and simplicity in use
• Fragile construction
• Remote indication is not possible
• Range is limited to about 650°C
• High time lag.
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• Bi-metallic Thermometer:
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• Most frequently used temperature measuring device is a bimetallic

thermometer. When two metals of different coefficients of thermal
expansion are brazed together, a change in temperature causes a change
in the physical dimensions. The change in physical dimension is a measure
of temperature.
• Description and Working: Bi-metal thermometer consists of two metal
strips of different coefficient of thermal expansions bonded together to form
as a single strip as shown, in Fig. When the Bi-metallic strip is subjected to

a temperature lower than the bonding temperature, it will bend in one
direction and when it is subjected to a temperature higher than the bonding
temperature, it bends in the other direction.
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• Various other types of bimetallic thermometers are
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93
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• Change in some electrical properties when

they are subjected to temperature change.
• Electrical thermometers are classified into
2 types
– Resistance thermo meter
– Thermocouples
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2.Electrical Thermometers
(a) Resistance Thermometers:
The resistance of an electrical conductor is given by,

Any instrument which utilizes the change in resistance to indicate the
temperature is popularly known as resistance thermometer.
i. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (pure metal resistors).
ii. Thermistor (Semiconductor resistors).

(i) .Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (pure metal resistors).
Most metals become more resistance to the passage of electric current as
they become hotter .
i.e., their resistance increases with increase in temperature

R = Resistance of the conductor at temperature T

Ro = Resistance of the conductor at reference temperature To
a & b = Temperature Coefficient of resistances which the conductor
material.
If the reference temperature is 'zero',

The number of constant's to be considered in the equation

depends on the material, the accuracy required, and the temperature
range.
Platinum conductor requires 2 constants and
Nickel, copper conductors require 3 constants,
Tungsten and nickel alloys require only one constant.
Description :
The resistive element of a RTD is generally a metal wire wound around an

electrically insulating material such as glass, ceramic or Mica. The wound
element is then placed in a protective enclosure made of molten glass.
Description :
Resistance element of a RTD may also constructed by depositing a platinum
or metal-glass slurry on a ceramic substrate. The film is then etched and
sealed to form the resistance element. The resistance element made by this
process is cheaper than the resistive element formed, by a wire winding.
However the accuracy of the RTD made by former element is not accurate.
Working :
When the resistive element is subjected to the environment whose
temperature is to be measured, the resistance of the element gets changed. A
bridge circuit of either null type or deflection type is used to measure the
change in resistance which is indicative of the temperature.
Various resistance element materials and their characteristics:

Desirable properties of sensing materials used in RTD:
It should permit the fabrication in convenient sizes.
It should have high coefficient of resistance.
It should be corrosive resistant
It should not undergo phase change at high temperatures in the
range.
It should have low cost.
Salient Features of RTD

1.Simplicity in design
2. Remote sensing is possible
3. Good accuracy
4. Easy installation and replacement
5. For low values of temperatures linear relation between
T and R exists.
(ii) . Thermistors (Semiconductor Resistance Sensors) :
Principle: When a semiconductor material is subjected to

increase in temperature, its resistance decreases.
A resistance thermometer which uses semiconductor as the
sensing element is called thermistor.

Thermistors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance
in contrast to the positive temperature coefficient of resistance
exhibited by RTD.
(i) . Thermistors (Semiconductor Resistance Sensors) :
The variation of resistance with temperature is exponential and is given by

R = Resistance at Temperature T
Ro = Resistance at the reference temperature
β = A constant which is determined experimentally
Construction and Working:

Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides such as
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium.
These metal oxides are milled and mixed in appropriate proportions with
binders and finally pressed into the desired shapes.
Thermistors are commercially available in different shapes such as beads,

rods, washers and discs etc.
Operation:
When the thermistor is subjected to a medium whose temperature is to be
I measured, its resistance gets changed according to the exponential law
given by the equation .
 A bridge circuit is employed to measure the resistance which is the direct

measure of temperature of the medium.
Salient Features:
Thermistors are extremely sensitive devices.
They have large temperature coefficient.
Accurate measurement is possible.
They have enough ability to withstand electrical and mechanical stresses.

Good operating range i.e. .100 °c to 300°C.
Low cost.
Compact in size & rugged construction.
Highly non-linear temperature characteristics.
Problems of self heating.
Comparison between RTD and Thermistor:
RTD THERMISTOR
Made of metals which are Made of metallic oxides

good conductors of electricity such as cobalt,
(copper, platinum, nickel). magnesium, nickel.
-100°C to 650°C.
-50°C to 300°C.
Resistance change is small,
positive and linear Resistance change is
large. negative and
Positive temperature nonlinear
coefficient of
Resistance Negative temperature
coefficient of
Have better reproducibility resistance
and low hysteresis
Comparison between RTD and Thermistor:
RTD THERMISTOR
Made of Metals -copper, Metallic oxides -
platinum, nickel cobalt, magnesium,
etc., nickel.
Range
-100°C to 650°C. -50°C to 300°C.

Resistance
change small, positive and large. negative and
linear nonlinear
Temperature Positive Negative

coefficient of
resistance
Better Less
Reproducibility
(i) . Thermocouples :
The most commonly used electrical temperature measuring

instrument is thermocouple.
The basic principles associated with thermocouple are:
Seebeck Effect
Peltier Effect
Thomson Effect
Seebeck Effect :
When two dissimilar metals are joined together as shown in Fig
with one junction at temperature TI and other junction at temperature T2
an emf will be generated which is primarily a function of junction
temperature. This phenomenon is called "Seebeck Effect".
Peltier Effect:
If two dissimilar metals are connected to an external circuit in such
a way that a small current is drawn, the emf of the circuit may be altered
slightly. This phenomenon is called Peltier Effect.
Thomson Effect:
If the temperature gradiant exists along either or both of the
conductors of a thermocouple circuit, junction emf may undergo an
additional slight change. This phenomenon is called Thomson effect.
Laws of Thermocouple:
(a) Law of Intermediate Metals:
If a third metal is introduced into the thermocouple circuit as shown in
Fig. there will be no change in the emf of the circuit provided the two
new thermo junctions formed by the third metal are maintained at

same temperature.
(b) .Law of Intermediate Temperatures
It states that if a thermocouple circuit generates an emf E1 when it
is operating between temperatures T1and T2, and it generates an emf E2
when the junctions are maintained at T2 and T3 then the same
thermocouple generates an emf = E1+ E2 when it is operating between

temperatures T1 and T3
Theoretically any two dissimilar conductor materials could be used to form a

thermocouple circuit.
 But in actual practice there are some materials which will give better
performance.
 Thermocouple may be prepared by twisting two wires together and brazing as
shown in figure
The wire size depends on the temperature to be measured. Usually, higher the
temperature to be measured, larger the wire size.
 However increase in wire size increases time response of the thermocouple.
Bare thermocouples are used to measure low temperatures. However to
measure high temperatures, the thermocouples are provided with some form of
protective insulations.
Operation:
The hot junction of the thermocouple is exposed to the environment
whose temperature is to be measured. Due to temperature gradient at the
two junctions, an emf is developed whose magnitude is in milli volts.
The output voltage of a thermocouple is given by
Where
A and B are constants for a given thermocouple
T and To are the hot junction and cold junction temperatures
respectively
Thermocouple materials and their range of application:
Series and Parallel Combinations of Thermocouples:
Thermopiles:
When thermocouples are connected in series as shown in fig. the resulting
circuit is called a Thermopile.
If there are 'n' thermocouples connected in series, then the circuit output is
equal to sum of the emfs of the individual thermocouples.
If all those 'n' thermocouples are identical, then the output of the
thermopile is given by,

Output of thermopile = n x output of a single thermocouple
Thermocouples Connected in Parallel:
Parallel connection is generally used when the average temperature of

more points is required.
Radiation Methods (Pyrometers) :
All the methods of Temperature measurement discussed in the

previous sections are contact type of instruments. But in practice we need
to measure high temperatures which may melt the instrument when
brought in contact.
Similarly it is difficult to measure temperature of the moving

bodies and temperature variations over the surface of an object. In such
situations non – contact type temperature measuring instruments are
preferred.
Total Radiation Pyrometer:
If any pyrometer that utilizes the total radiation emitted by a. hot
body for measuring the temperature, then it is called "Total Radiation
Pyrometer". The term "total radiation" includes both
visible (light) and invisible (infrared) radiation.
Optical Pyrometer
It is the most accurate of all radiation pyrometers.

The principle of this instrument is based on Planck's distribution law which
states that
The emissive radiation energy of a black body varies with the
wavelength. In other words the radiant intensity (Brightness) varies with the
temperature at a given wavelength (λ).
Radiation Methods (Pyrometers) :
 Pyrometry deals with the measurement of elevated temperatures

generally above 500°C.
 The instrument used to measure such high temperature are called
pyrometers.
 Radiation pyrometers , make use of the radiation emitted from the

hot body. For any body at temperature above 550OC, the
Intensity of thermal radiation emitted from the body is sufficient to
measure its temperature.
Radiation Pyrometers are of two types:
1. Total Radiation Pyrometers.
2. Optical Radiation Pyrometers.
If any pyrometer that utilizes the total radiation emitted by a. hot
body for measuring the temperature, then it is called "Total Radiation
Pyrometer". The term "total radiation" includes both
visible (light) and invisible (infrared) radiation.
According to the Stefan-Boltzman law, the total radiation energy

emitted by the black body is proportional to the fourth power of its

absolute temperature.
It consists of a blackened tube T, completely opened at

one end to receive the radiations emitted by a hot body whose
temperature is to be measured. The other end of the tube T is
provided with an aperture (sighting hole) fitted with an
Inside the tube T, a concave mirror M is fitted whose position can be

adjusted with the help of a rack and pinion arrangement as shown in the fig.
This concave mirror focuses the incoming radiations onto the temperature
sensing element which is generally a Thermocouple.
This thermocouple is connected to a calibrated Milli voltmeter to

indicate temperature directly. A protecting radiation shield is provided to see that
the incoming radiations do not fall directly on the temperature sensing element .
Working:
Working:
 The open end of the tube (T) is focused onto the radiating body whose
temperature is to be measured.
 The radiations emitted from the hot body enters the tube. With the help
of sighting hole, and the rack and pinion arrangement, the concave mirror 'M' is
adjusted so that the incoming radiations fall on the concave mirror.
Working:
 The radiations falling on the mirror (M) reflected onto the hot
junction of the thermocouple. The reflection of radiation onto the thermocouple
can also be done using a lens or a parabolic reflector as shown in the Fig.
The millivoltmeter connected to the thermocouple measures emf of the circuit

which is the direct indication of the temperature.
Applications:
Total radiation pyrometer is used to measure temperatures ranging from
700°C to 2000 °c .
Salient Features:
It is a non contact type temperature measuring device.
Its speed of response is high.
It can be used to measure temperatures of moving objects also.

Its accuracy is high (around :t 2% of the scale range)
The presence of dust. smoke and gases betwecn the radiating object and the
concave
mirror results in an crror reading (i:e. low reading) of the instrument.
It has low sensitivity at low tcmperature range.
It cannot be used for temperatures below 600°C.
Optical Pyrometer
It is the most accurate of all radiation pyrometers.
The principle of this instrument is based on Planck's distribution law which states
that the emissive radiation energy of a black body varies with the wavelength. In
other words the radiant intensity (Brightness) varies with the temperature at a
given wavelength (λ).
According to the Planck's distribution equation.
The optical pyrometer measures the radiant intensity at one or two specific
wavelengths.
One color pyrometer - The pyrometer measures the energy at one

wavelength
Two color pyrometer - It measures the energy at two wavelengths,.
One type of optical pyrometer is the “disappearing filament one color

optical pyrometer.”
In this, the pyrometer identifies the temperature by comparing the
color of the radiation emitted by the hot body with the calibrated radiating
source. As the surface is heated, it becomes, dark-red, orange and finally white
in color.
According to Wien's law
The maximum points in the black body radiation curves shift to shorter
wavelengths with increase in temperature.
λ max=wavelength at which maximum points in the curve occur

Description :
Description :
A standard lamp placed in the optical path of the incoming

radiation in between the eyepiece and objective lens.
The red filter is installed in the eyepiece in order to allow only
monochromatic radiation at wavelengths around 0.65 µ to the
observer.
Working:
The radiation from the hot body passing through the

objective lens is made to pass through an absorption filter
(Absorption filter reduces intensity of the incoming radiation
so that the standard lamp may be operated at lower levels) and
then viewed through the lens of eyepiece.
Working:
The color of the standard lamp is made to match with the color
of the incoming radiation by controlling the lamp current.
The reading of the ammeter at matching condition is the
measure of temperature of the body.
Working:
If the filament is cooler than the temperature source, then the
filament appears dark as shown in Fig. (a).

If the filament is hotter than the temperature source, then the
filament appears bright as shown in Fig. (b).
If the filament temperature and the hot body temperature are
same, then the filament disappears as shown in Fig. (c).
Applications:
lt is used to measure the temperature of molten metals.
 It is used to measure the temperature of furnaces.
Salient Features:
It is a non contact type instrument.

Accuracy is high (i.e.± 5 °c)
It is easy to operate.
Temperatures more than 700°C can only be measured.

MMM Class - 2-3

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GMR Institute of Technology, Rajam

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Explain the concept of “Displacement Measurement”

A device that transform input physical variables into a

convenient and more usual form of output is called a

• Sensor is an element which first detects the

• If sensor is used to transduce the measurand, then

1. Primary / Secondary transducers.

2. Active /Passive transducers.

3. Analog/ Digital transducers

4. Mechanical, Electrical and Opto- electrical

"If energy required for conversion of input signal is

Piezoelectric and Photovoltaic transducers

The energy required for signal conversion is entirely

Which convert input signal into an output signal which is

Ex : Bourdon tube pressure gauge,

Which convert mechanical quantities such as displacement,

Which combine optical, electronic and electrical

There are some light sensitive materials which

change their electrical properties when subjected to light.

The output is mainly a function of intensity of the

Electrical/Electronic Transducers Over Mechanical Transducers :

1.Mass and inertia effects are minimized.

2. Amplification (or) attenuation is easy.

3. The effect of friction is minimized.

4. They are compact in size.

5. Remote indication is possible.

6. Power consumption is less and loading errors

2. They need external power supply.

3. Instrument electrical properties may change the actual

l.Variable resistance transducers.

2.Variable inductance transducers.

3.Variable capacitance transducers.

4.Piezo electric transducers.

5.Photo-electric (or) Light detecting transducers.

Resistance of an electrical conductor is given by

L= Length of the conductor in

The electrical resistance can be varied by varying

Potentiometric Transducers (Sliding Contact Devices) :

These transducers convert mechanical displacement (input)

A resistance potentiometer called as 'POT' consists of a

resistive element provided with a sliding contact. Usually, the

Wire material: Copper- nickel

Potentiometric Transducers (Sliding Contact Devices) :

2.The motion of the guide rod sweeps the slider on the

3.The length of the conductor i.e. Resistance is proportional to

The change in resistance is the measure of displacement of the

•If the reluctance of a magnetic circuit is altered, then

The Inductance can be varied by changing any one of the following

• When the input (displacement) is given to the armature,

Relative inductance of the two coils get changed when

The mutual inductance can be altered either by changing the self

In operation, when the armature is connected to a member

The change in output voltage of the pickup coil is the

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

It is a Three coil Variable mutual inductance transducer

LVDT is a three coil variable mutual inductance transducer.

i.e.,one primary coil (P) and two secondary coils S1 and S2

It converts linear displacement into an electrical signal .

 A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former.