Sigmund Freud

Determinism
 According to Freud behavior is determined by :
 Irrational forces
 Unconscious motivations
 Biological and instinctual drives as they
evolve through the six psychosexual stages
of life
Psychoanalysis : An overview
Developed by Sigmund Freud and his followers in 1890’s .

Psychoanalysis is :

 A set of philosophical descriptions of human nature.

 A method of psychotherapy development that focus on unconscious
factors that motivate behavior and encourages the use of transference as
a way for therapists to gain information and create connections between
clients and themselves.
 A theory of personality which is developed through different stages in
life.

Psychoanalysis asserts that the impact of early childhood sexuality and

experiences, stored in the unconscious, can lead to the development
of adult emotional problems.
 Freud’s Psychoanalytic
Approach:
 Model of personality development
 Method of Psychotherapy
 Identified dynamic factors that motivate behaviour
 Focused on role of unconscious
 Instincts
 Libido – sexual energy – Pleasure principle – goal of
life gain pleasure and avoid pain
 Death instinct – accounts for aggressive drive – to die
or to hurt themselves or others
 Sex and aggressive drives-powerful determinants of
people’s actions
The Structure of Personality
 THE ID — The Demanding Child
 Ruled by the pleasure principle
 THE EGO — The Adult
 Ruled by the reality principle
 THE SUPEREGO — The Judge
 Ruled by the moral principle
The Structure of Personality

ID EGO

SUPEREGO
The mind is an iceberg
The id and superego
are below the surface

Only the ego is on the

conscious level.
Id
 Basic psychic energy
and motivations
 Operates to demands
of Pleasure Principle
- strive to satisfy
desires and reduce
inner tension
 The Demanding Child
Ego
 Deals with real world
 Operates to demands
of Reality Principle
solves problems by
planning & acting
 The Adult
Superego
 Internalised social
norm & moral forces
pressing on and
constraining individual
action
 Acts as our conscience
 The Judge
 Psychosexual Theory of
Development
 Five Stages of Development
 Oral Stage
 Anal Stage

 Phallic Stage

 Latency Period

 Genital Stage
Psychoanalysis: Stages of
Personality Development
Period of life
Infants need to get basic nurturing, or later feeling of
Oral Stage greediness and acquisitiveness may develop. The mouth is the
First year of life sexual gratifying organ. Fixation on this stage will result in
personality issues such as mistrust of others, love and fear of
or inability to form intimate relationships.

Anal Stage The anal zone becomes of major significance in form of

Ages 1-3 personality. A child is learning independence , accepting
personal power and learning to express negative feeling such
as rage. Parental attitudes and discipline patterns have a
significance impact on later personality development.
Psychoanalysis: Stages of Personality
Development (cont)
Period of Life
Phallic Stage This stage differs in boys and girls. The male phallic
Ages 3-6 stage is known as Oedipus complex, mother as love
object. The female phallic stage is known as Electra
complex, girl’s striving for father’s love and approval.

Latency Stage Sexual interests are replaced by interest in school,

Ages 6-12 sport, and a range of new activities. This is the time
for socialization as a child begins to form relationships
with others.

Genital Stage Sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the
Ages 12-18 lessons learned during the previous stages, adolescents
direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with
the primary focus of pleasure is the genitals.
Defense Mechanisms
 To protect the ego against the painful and threatening
impulses arising from the id we distort the reality
 The processes that distort the reality for the ego are
called defense mechanisms
Types of Defense Mechanisms

 Repression
 Reaction Formation
 Denial
 Regression
 Sublimation
 Anxiety and the
Mechanisms of Defense
Repression
 Unconscious
 Motivated
 Forgetting

The process of preventing

unacceptable thoughts,
feelings, or urges from
reaching conscious
awareness
 Anxiety and the
Mechanisms of Defense
Denial
 Unconscious
 Motivated
 Not Perceiving

Perceptual Defense
Research
 Anxiety and the
Mechanisms of Defense
Other Defense Mechanisms
 Reaction Formation
 Act opposite of impulse
 Projection
 Make impulse external
 Anxiety and the
Mechanisms of Defense
Other Defense Mechanisms
 Isolation/Intellectualization
 Isolate emotional reaction
 Process abstractly
 Anxiety and the
Mechanisms of Defense
Other Defense Mechanisms
Displacement
Channel impulse to non-threatening
target
Sublimation
Channel impulse into socially desired
activity
 Anxiety and the
Mechanisms of Defense
Defense Mechanisms in Everyday Life

 Useful
in coping with unexpected or
disappointing events

 Can also make circumstances worse

Psychoanalysis: Consciousness and the
Unconscious
Consciousness
 Freud believed that everything we
are aware of is stored in our
conscious. Our conscious makes up
a very small part of who we are.
 This is the aspect of our mental
processing that we can think and
talk about rationally. A part of this
includes our memory, which is not
always part of consciousness but can
be retrieved easily at any time and
brought into our awareness.
Psychoanalysis: Consciousness and the
Unconscious
Unconscious
 That portion of the mind inaccessible to usual,
conscious thought
 Get to unconscious through Free Association:
spontaneous free flowing associations of ideas and
feelings
 The Unconscious
 Clinical evidence for the unconscious mind:

 Dreams
 Slips of the tongue
 Posthypnotic suggestions
 Material derived from free-association
 Symbolic content of psychotic symptoms
 Dream Interpretation
 “Royal road to the unconscious”
 What is important in dreams is the infantile wish
fulfillment represented in them
 Freud assumed every dream has a meaning that
can be interpreted by decoding representations of
the unconscious material
 Dream symbol = represents some person, thing, or
activity involved in the unconscious process
Dream Interpretations
 Knife, umbrella, snake = Penis
 Box, oven, ship = Uterus
 Room, table with food = Women
 Staircase, ladder = Sexual intercourse
 Baldness, tooth removal = castration
 Left (direction) = crime, sexual deviation
 Fire = bedwetting
 Robber = father
 Falling = anxiety
Freudian Slip
 Psychological error in speaking or writing
 Evidence of some unconscious urge, desire, or conflict
& struggle
 When ego or superego are not doing their job properly
elements of id slip out or are seen
 Psychoanalytic Techniques

 Free Association
 Client reports immediately without censoring any feelings or
thoughts
 Interpretation
 Therapist points out, explains, and teaches the meanings of
whatever is revealed
 Dream Analysis
 Therapist uses the “royal road to the unconscious” to bring
unconscious material to light
Carl Jung
Analytical Psychology
Broke from traditional psychoanalysis and rests on the
assumption that occult phenomenon can and do
influence the lives of everyone.
Jung believed that each of us is motivated not only by
repressed experiences but also by certain emotionally
toned experiences inherited from our ancestors. These
inherited images make up the collective unconscious.
The CU includes those elements that we have never
experienced individually but which have come down to
us from our ancestor
This theory includes:
 Archetypes – The most inclusive archetype is self-
realization and can be viewed as a balance between
various opposing forces of personality. It is a
compendium of opposites (introverted/extraverted,
rational/irrational, male/female, conscious/
unconscious , past events/future expectations)
Levels of the Psych
 Like Freud, Jung believed that the mind had both
conscious and unconscious levels.
 Unlike Freud, Jung strongly asserted that the most
important part of the unconscious springs not from
personal experiences of the individual but from the
distant past of human existence, a concept called the
collective unconscious.
 Of lesser importance to Jung are the conscious and
the personal unconscious.
Conscious
 Images are those that are sensed by the ego
 The unconscious elements have no relationship to the
ego
 Jung’s notion of the ego is more restrictive than Freud.
For Jung, the ego is not the whole personality but must
be completed by the more comprehensive self, the
centre of the personality is largely unconscious
 In a psychologically healthy person, the ego takes a
secondary position to the unconscious self
Conscious
 Consciousness plays a relatively small role in analytic
psychology
 An overemphasis on expanding one’s conscious psyche
can lead to psychological imbalance
 Healthy individuals are in contact with the conscious
world but also allow themselves to experience their
unconscious self
 When this happens the individual can then achieve
individuation
Personal Unconscious
 The personal unconscious embraces all repressed,
forgotten, or subliminally perceived experiences from
one particular individual
 The personal unconscious is similar to Freud’s view of
the unconscious and the preconscious combined
Personal Unconscious
 Contents of the personal unconscious are called
complexes
 These are emotionally toned conglomerations of
associated ideas
 For example, the concept of “mother”
 Complexes may be partly conscious and may stem from
both personal and the collective unconscious
Collective Unconscious
 Has roots in the deep ancestral past of the entire
species
 These include distant ancestor’s experiences with
universal concepts like God, mother, water, earth, that
are transmitted through the generations so that people
in every time have been influenced by their primate
ancestor’s primordial experiences
 The contents of the collective unconscious are the
same (more or less) for people of every culture!
Collective Unconscious
 These influence may peoples myths, legends, and
religious
 It is human’s innate tendency to react in a particular
way whenever their experiences stimulate a
biologically inherited response tendency (like a
mother’s unlearned or unlikely response of love
toward her newborn)
 Initially contact with these images are forms without
content but with practice the content emerges and
become relatively autonomous images called
archetypes
Archetypes
Archetypes are ancient or archaic images that derive
from the collective unconscious. They are similar in
that they are emotionally toned collections of
associated images. While complexes are
individualized components of the personal
unconscious, archetypes are generalized and derive
from the contents of the collective unconscious.
 The potential for countless numbers of archetypes exists
within each person, and when a personal experience
corresponds to the latent primordial image, the archetype
becomes activated.
 Archetypes are expressed indirectly and, when activated, it
expresses itself through dreams, fantasies, and delusions.
 Dreams are the main source of archetypal materials and offer
what Jung considered proof for the existence of archetypes.
 Dreams produce motifs that could not have been known to
the dreamer through personal experience
 Examples of archetypes include:
 Persona which is the side of personality that people
show to the world.
 Not necessarily the same as the public face that one
shows others.
 Jung believed that, to be psychologically healthy, one
must strike a balance between the demands of society
and what we really are.
 To be oblivious to one’s persona is to underestimate the
importance of society, but to be unaware of one’s deep
individuality is become societies puppet.
Shadow
 is the archetype of darkness and repression, representing
the qualities that we do not wish to acknowledge but
attempt to hide from ourselves and others.
 The shadow consists of morally objectionable tendencies as
well as a number of constructive qualities that we are
reluctant to face.
 We must continually strive to know our shadow and this is
our first test of courage. It is easier to project this dark side
onto others that we refuse to see in ourselves.
 To come to grips with the darkness within ourselves is to
achieve the realization of the shadow. Most of us never
realize our shadow and this leads to tragedy in our lives and
feelings of defeat and discouragement.
Anima
 is the feminine side of men and originates in the
collective unconscious as an archetype and remains
extremely resistant to consciousness.
 Few men become well acquainted with the anima
because this task requires great courage and is even
more difficult to become acquainted with than their
shadow.
 To master the projection of the anima, men must
overcome intellectual barriers, delve into the far recesses
of their unconscious, and realize the feminine side of
their personality.
Anima
 Jung believed that the anima originated from early men’s
experiences with women including mothers, sisters, and
lovers which combine into the concept of women.
 At times the archetype of anima is an image and at other
times it is represented as a feeling or a mood
Animus
 is the masculine side of women and originates in the
collective unconscious as an archetype that, too, is
resistant to consciousness.
 The animus is symbolic of thinking and reasoning and is
capable of influencing the thinking of women yet it does
not belong to her.
 It belongs to the collective unconscious and originates
from the encounters of prehistoric women with men.
Great mother
 It is also known as godmother, Mother of God, Mother
Nature, Mother Earth, the stepmother, and even a witch.
 Fertility and power combine to form the concept of
rebirth which, itself, may be a different archetype
altogether.
 Rebirth is represented in the process of reincarnation,
baptism, resurrection, and individuation.
Animus
 Animus originates from early women’s experiences with
men including fathers, brothers, and lovers that are
combined into the concept of men.
 Both the anima and animus can influence the
relationship of men and women with partners.
 The animus appears in dreams, visions, and fantasies in
a personified form
Great mother
 is a derivative of the animus and anima.
 Every man and women possess a great mother
archetype.
 The pre-existing concept of mother has both positive
and negative feeling which extends to this archetype.
 The great mother represents the opposing forces of
fertility and nourishment on the one hand and power
and destruction on the other.
Wise Old Man
 is also a derivative of the anima and animus.
 The archetype is representative of wisdom and meaning, and
symbolizes human’s pre-existing knowledge of the mysteries
of life.
 This archetype is unconscious and cannot be directly
experienced by the individual.
 The collective unconscious cannot directly impart its wisdom to an
individual.
 The wise old man archetype is personified in dreams as
father, grandfather, teacher, philosopher, guru, doctor, or
priest.
 It can be a king, sage, or even a magician in tales and stories.
Hero
 is an archetype that is represented in mythology and
legends as a powerful person, sometimes part god, and one
who fights evil.
 Heroes are always mortal because an immortal person has no
weaknesses and cannot be a hero.
 The image of the hero touches an archetype within us, as
demonstrated by our fascination with heroes in movies,
novels, plays, and on television. When the hero conquers the
villain, he or she frees us from feelings of impotence and
misery.
 At the same time the hero serves as a model for the ideal
personality!
The self
 is the most powerful archetype.
 Jung believed that each person possesses an inherited
tendency to move toward growth, perfection, and
completion, and he called this innate disposition the
self.
 The most comprehensive of all archetypes, the self is the
archetypes of archetypes because it pulls together the
other archetypes and unites them in the process of self-
realization.
Dynamics of Personality
 Progression inclines a person to react consistently to a
given set of environmental conditions, whereas
regression is a necessary backward step in the
successful attainment of a goal.
 Balance of both regression and progression leads to
health personality development
Dynamics of Personality
 Jung insisted that human behaviour is shaped by both
causal and teleological forces and that causal
explanations must be balanced by teleological ones.
 Adaptation to the outside world involves the forward
flow of psychic energy called progression while
adaptation to the inner world relies on a backward
flow of psychic energy is called regression.
Psychological Type
Various psychological types grow out of the union of two
basic attitudes (introversion and extraversion) and
four separate functions (thinking, feeling, sensing,
and intuiting)
Attitudes
 Attitude is a predisposition to act or react in a
characteristic direction.
 Introversion is the turning inward of psychic energy
with an orientation toward the subjective
 Extraversion is the turning outward of psychic energy
so that a person is oriented toward the objective and
away from the subjective
 People are neither one nor the other but, rather, a
balance of both
Functions
 These four functions are combined with the two
attitudes to form eight possible orientations.
 Sensing tells people that something exists
 Thinking enables them to recognize its meaning
 Feeling tells them its value or worth
 Intuiting allow them to know about it without knowing
how they know
The four functions usually appear in a hierarchy, with one occupying a
superior position, another a secondary position, and the other two inferior
positions. Most people cultivate only one function, so they characteristically
approach a situation relying on the one dominant or superior function.
Some people develop two functions, and a few very mature individuals
have cultivated three. A person who has theoretically achieved self-
realization or individuation would have all four functions highly developed.
Development of Personality
 Jung emphasized the second half of life
 The person can bring together various aspects of life to
gain self realization
 Childhood
 Early morning…full of potential
 Lacks consciousness
 Anarchic phase (chaotic, disconnected islands of
consciousness, primitive images of consciousness)
Development of Personality
 Lacks consciousness (continued)
 Monarchic phase (development of the ego, logical &
verbal thinking, see themselves objectively in the third
person, islands are larger, more numerous, but still
disconnected)
Development of Personality
 Dualistic phase (ego is both objective and subjective,
refer to themselves in the first person, aware of the
existence of other people as separate, islands are now
continuous land, complex self with ego that
recognizes both the object and subject)
Development of Personality
 Youth
 Morning sun
 Climbing toward zenith toward impending
decline
 Young people strive to gain psychic and physical
independence from their parents, find a mate, raise a
family, and make a place in the world
 Middle aged people that attempt to hold on to
youthful values face a crippled second half of life,
unable to self-realize and to establish new goals and
seek out new meaning in life
Development of Personality
 Middle Life
 Brilliant late morning sun but heading toward
sunset
 Begins at 35 or 40 and is filled with much anxiety
and periods of tremendous potential
 Discover new meaning in life and often have a new
religious orientation and deal with life/death
Development of Personality
 Old age
 Evening sun
 Once bright conscious that is now markedly dim
 Fear of death, meaning of death
Self-realization
 Analytical psychology is essentially a psychology of
opposites, and self-realization is the process of
integrating the opposite poles into a single
homogeneous individual. This process of “coming to
selfhood” means that a person has all psychological
components functioning in unity, with no psychic
processes atrophying.
Self-realization
 People who have gone through this process have
achieved realization of the self, minimized their
persona, recognized their anima or animus, and
acquired a workable balance between introversion and
extraversion. In addition, these self realized
individual have elevated all four of the functions to a
superior position, an extremely difficult
accomplishment.
Psychotherapy
 Word Association Test (responses reveal complexes)
 Dream Analysis (reflect a variety of complexes and
concepts)
 Proof of the collective unconscious
 Active Imagination (requires the person to begin with an
impression like a dream, image, vision, picture, fantasy,
and to concentrate on it until the impression begins to
move). Follow the image and try to communicate with it
no matter where it goes.
Psychotherapy
 Psychotherapy – Four basic approaches
 First, confession of a pathogenic agent
 Second, interpretation, explanation, and elucidation
(insight, too)
 Third, education of the patient as social beings
 Fourth, transformation of the patient into a healthy
human
Critique
 Nearly impossible to verify 
or falsify
 Difficult to test empirically
 Generated a moderate
amount of research
 Moderate rating on
organizing research
 Low rating on practicality
 Has some internal
consistent but terms can
have more than one
meaning
 Low internal consistency
Low rating on parsimony
 Neither optimistic nor
pessimistic
 Neither deterministic nor
purposive
 Both conscious and
unconscious
 Motivation is both causal and
teleological
 Has a clear biological
orientation
 Emphasizes highly the
similarities among people
 Low on individual difference
Alfred Adler
Aggression drive
 Aggression drive – the reaction we have when other
drives
 Need to eat, sexually satisfied, be loved
 Aggression as physical and negative Better called
assertiveness drive.
Compensation or striving to overcome
 Our personalities could be accounted for the ways in
which we do – or don’t –compensate or overcome those
problems(short comings, inferiorities, etc)
 "To be a human being means to feeloneself inferior."
Adler believed thatinferiority feelings are the source of
allhuman striving
 inability to overcome inferiority feelings
domineer over others, lean on others
 An important role in Adler theory but not alabel for
the basis motive of human life
Masculine Protest
 In his culture. Man is more important and held in
higher esteem than woman.
 Adler did not see men’s assertiveness and success as
due to some innate superiority
 But he saw it as:
 Boy – be encouraged to be assertive
 Girl – be discouraged.
 Both boys and girls begin life with the capacity for
“protest”
DRIVE - STRIVING FORSUPERIORITY
(OR PERFECTION)
 Desire to be better
 Refer to unhealthy or neurotic striving
 Desire to be better than others rather than better in our
own right.
Life Style
 Adler’s theory was influenced by Jan Smuts. To
understand people, we must understand them in the
context of their environment, background, both
physical and social, called holism
 See people as whole rather than parts
individual psychology
 Life style refers to how you live your life, how you
handle problems and interpersonal relations
 Life style is not merely a mechanical reaction to the
environment.
Teleology
 Adler see motivation as a matter of moving towards
the future, rather then being driven by the past
 We are drawn toward our goals, our purpose, called
teleology
As If
 “ As If ” ( influenced by philosopher Hans Vaihinger )
 For practical purposes, we need to create partial truths
-fictions
 We behave as if we knew the world would be here
tomorrow, as if we were sure what good and bad are all
about….Adler called this fictional finalism

The fiction lies in the future, and yet influences our

behavior today
Ideal Personality:
THE SOCIALLY USEFUL PERSON.
 Potential to corporate with others to achieve personal
and social goal.
 Give basically a positive outlook in life.
Social Interest and Intelligence
 Important part of a persons intelligence functioning in
a situation.
 Social concern is based on innate disposition.
 Involves feeling the pain of others.
 Sense of caring for family, community, society,
humanity and life.
 Genius
 is primarily a person of supreme usefulness
 Good Adjustment
 Striving on the "commonly useful side.
 "Poor adjustment is striving on the "commonly useless
side.“
 Poor Adjustment
 Greatest difficulties in life and provides the greatest
injury to others.

"It is from among such individuals that all human

failures spring."
Inferiority
 Inferiority “pulled” towards fulfillment,perfection,
self-actualization.
 3 type of inferiority:
 Organ inferiority
 Psychological inferiorities
 Inferiority complex
1907 : Studies of Organ Inferiority
 “ to be a man means to suffer from an inferiority
feeling which constantly
drives him to overcome it” from Alfred Adler, The
meaning of life
 Sickness, near death experience from early age
decide to become the doctor “in order to overcome
death and fear of death”
 Personality problem
 Related to a faulty of lifestyle, usually develop in
childhood
 Community
 People have to cooperate
 Need the social relationship
Psychological type
 Emerges from combining degrees of activity with
social interest.
 3 type of insufficient social interest:
 Ruling type
 Aggressive and dominant over other

 Low social interest and high degree of activity

 Choleric, angry all time (Greek)

  Leaning type -
 Sensitive people who have develop a shell aroundthemselves.
 Low energy level and become dependent.Phlegmatic, be
sluggish (Greek )
 Avoiding type
 Low social interest and low activity.
 Tend to become psychotic, finally knock themselves into their
own world
 Melancholy, sad constantly (Greek )
 Social interest : Socially useful type
 High social interest and high degree of activity
 Healthy person has both social interest and energy
 Sanguine, cheerful, friendly (Greek)
Childhood
 Personality or lifestyle as something established quite
early in life.
 Three basic childhood situations
 Organ inferiorities, early childhood diseases.
 Pampering- children are taught, by actions of others,
that they can take without giving.
 Neglect- child who is neglected or abused learns what
the pampered child learns
Birth order
 Not only parents but also brother sand sisters
influence the child (Adler is the first theorist.)
 Only child
 more likely than other to be pampered.
 First child
 begins life as an only child, with all theattention
to him or herself
Birth order
 Second child
 he or she has the first child as a sort of ‘pace-
setter’ & tends to become quite competitive,
constantly trying to surpass the older child.
 Youngest child
 most pampered in a family with more than one
child.
KAREN HORNEY
Psychoanalytic Social Theory
 is built on the assumption that social and cultural
conditions, especially childhood experiences, are
largely responsible for shaping personality.
 People who do not have their needs for love and
affection satisfied during childhood develop basic
hostility toward their parents and, as a consequence,
suffer from basic anxiety. Horney theorized that
people combat basic anxiety by adopting one of three
fundamental styles of relating to others
 Basic Anxiety and Basic Hostility
 Three Interpersonal Orientations
 Moving toward People: The Self-Effacing Solution
 Moving against People: The Expansive Solution
 Moving away from People: The Resignation Solution
 Healthy Versus Neurotic Use of Interpersonal
Orientations
 Major Adjustments to Basic Anxiety
 Eclipsing the Conflict: Moving toward or against
Others
 Detachment: Moving away from Others
 The Idealized Self: Moving away from the Real Self
 Externalization: Projection of Inner Conflict
 Secondary Adjustment Techniques
 Cultural Determinants of Development
 Gender Roles
 Cross-Cultural Differences
 Therapy
 Self-Analysis
 Parental Behavior and Personality
Development
 THE RELATIONAL APPROACH WITHIN
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
 The Sense of Self in Relationships
 Narcissism
 Attachment in Infancy and Adulthood
 Infant Attachment
 Adult Attachments and Relationships
 Longitudinal Studies of Attachment
 Parenting
 Therapy
Preview of Horney’s Theory
and Object Relations Theory

Prepared to accompany Theories of Personality (5th ed.) by Susan C. Cloninger (2008), published
by Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Basic Anxiety and Basic
Hostility
BASIC ANXIETY: feeling
lonely and helpless in
a hostile world

BASIC HOSTILITY: must

be repressed for
survival and security

 dependency
 fear of parents
 fear of loss of love
Horney’s Model of Neurotic Conflict
Three Interpersonal Orientations

moving toward toward

(self-effacing away
solution) ins t
aga
moving against
(expansive
solution)
moving away
(resignation
solution)
Measurement of Interpersonal Orientation:
The Cohen CAD Scale

“To have something good to say about

everyone seems…”
 [Moving Toward: Compliance Scale]
“For me to have enough money or
power to impress self-styled “big
shots” would be…”
 [Moving Against: Aggression Scale]
“Being free of social obligations is…”
 [Moving Away: Detachment Scale]
 MOVING
TOWARD
“the self-effacing
solution”
 needs affection and approval
 needs a partner (friend; PEOPLE
spouse; lover)
 undemanding and compliant
 lives life within narrow
borders
 manipulative demands
“poor me”; playing the
martyr; the saint
 represses competition or
dominance
 represses rage, anger,
hostility
temper tantrums
 MOVING
“the expansive solution”
 Machiavellian, likeable
AGAINST

facade
needs control, dominance and
PEOPLE
power
 exploits others
 self-worth derived from
success and prestige
 chooses a partner to enhance
prestige, wealth, or power
 identifies with the ideal self
 MOVING
“the solution of AWAY
resignation”
 attitude of “I don't care about
FROM

anything”
emotionally flat
PEOPLE
 self-sufficient; unassailable
 counterdependent (need to
never be dependent on
anyone)
 belittles own potential
 lacks goals
 overly sensitive to coercion
or advice
 vacillates between despised
real self and ideal self
Healthy Versus Neurotic Use of
Interpersonal Orientations

Neurotic: Healthy:
overemphasizes uses all
one orientation orientations
Neurotic trends
disproportionate in
intensity
indiscriminant in
application
 everyone must love me; I
must be better than
everyone; etc.
disregard for reality
intense anxiety if not
satisfied
MAJOR ADJUSTMENTS
TO BASIC ANXIETY:
 eclipsing the conflict
 detachment
 the idealized self
 alienation from the real self
 the tyranny of the shoulds
 externalization
SECONDARY ADJUSTMENT
TECHNIQUES:
blind spots
compartmentalizing
rationalization
excessive self-control
arbitrary rightness
elusiveness
cynicism
Cultural Determinants
Of Development
Gender Roles

 Achievement
 Social Dominance
 Valuing the Feminine Role
 Womb Envy

 Mental Health and Gender Roles

Cultural Determinants
Of Development
Cross-Cultural Differences

Individualism
Collectivism
THERAPY

Self-analysis

personal journal
Personality
Development

PARENTAL INDIFFERENCE:
THE “BASIC EVIL”

 coldly indifferent
 may be openly hostile, rejecting the child

 child feels unwanted and unloved

 caused by the parents’ own neuroses

ERICH FROMM
INTRODUCTION/OVERVIEW
 Erich Fromm’s basic thesis is that modern-day people
have been torn away from their prehistoric union with
nature and also with one another, yet they have. The
power of reasoning, foresight, and imagination.
INTRODUCTION/OVERVIEW
 Trained in Freudian psychoanalysis and influenced by
Karl Marx, Karen Horney, and other socially oriented
theorists, Fromm developed a theory of personality
that emphasizes the influence of socio-biological
factors, history, economics, and class structure. His
humanistic psychoanalysis assumes that humanity’s
separation from the natural world has produced
feelings of loneliness and isolation, a condition called
basic anxiety
Human Needs
 Relatedness
 Drive for union with another
person(s)
 Three basic ways:
1. Submission
2. Power
3. Love
 Transcendence
 Urge to rise above a passive and
accidental existence and into “the
realm of purposefulness and freedom”
Human Needs (cont’d)
 Rootedness
 Need to establish roots or to feel at
home again in the world

 Sense of Identity
 Capacity for humans to be aware of
themselves as a separate entity
Human Needs (cont’d)
 Frame of Orientation
 Being split off from nature, humans need a road map
to make their way through the world

 Summary of Human Needs

 These needs have evolved from humans’ existence as
a separate species
 Aimed at moving them toward a reunification with
the natural world
 Lack of satisfaction of any of these needs is
unbearable and may result in insanity
The Burden of Freedom
 Mechanisms of Escape
 Authoritarianism
 Tendency to give up the independence of one’s own
individual self and to fuse one’s self with somebody or
something outside oneself
 Masochism

 Sadism

 Destructiveness
 Is rooted in the feelings of aloneness, isolation and
powerlessness.
 Conformity
 People who conform try to escape from a sense of
aloneness and isolation by giving up their individuality
and becoming whatever other people desire them to be.
The Burden of Freedom
 Positive Freedom
 Spontaneous activity of the whole personality
 Achieved when a person becomes reunified with
others and with the world
Character Orientations
 Nonproductive Orientations
 Receptive
 Feel that the source of all good lies outside themselves and
that the only way they can relate to the world is to receive
things.
 Negative qualities:
 Passitivity

 Submissiveness

 Lack of Self-confidence

 Positivetraits:
 Loyalty

 Acceptance

 Trust
Character Orientations
 Exploitative
 They aggressively take what they desire rather than
passively receive it.
 Negative side:
 Egocentric

 Conceited

 Arrogant

 Seducing

 Positive side:
 Impulsive

 Proud

 Charming

 Self-confident
Character Orientations
 Hoarding
 Seek to save that which they have already obtained.
 Negative traits:
 Rigidity

 Obstinacy

 Lack of creativity

 Positive characteristics:
 Orderliness

 CleanlinessPunctuality

 Marketing
Character Orientations
 Marketing
 Marketing characters see themselves as commodities, with
their personal value dependent on their exchange value,
that is, their ability to sell themselves.
 Negative traits:
 Aimless

 Opportunistic

 Inconsistent

 Wasteful

 Positive Qualities:
 Open-mindedness

 generosity
Character Orientations
 The Productive Orientation
 Psychologically healthy people work toward positive
freedom
Three Dimensions
a) Working-as a means of creative self-expression
b) Loving-concerned with the growth and
development of themselves as well as others.
c) Reasoning/thinking-which cannot be separated
from productive work and love.
Personality Disorders
 Necrophilia
 Love of death and hatred of all humanity

 Malignant Narcissism
 Belief that everything one owns is of great value
while anything belonging to others is worthless

 Incestuous Symbiosis
 Extreme dependence on one’s mother to the extent
that one’s personality is blended with that of the
host person
Abraham Maslow
 What is Humanistic Psychology?
 It emphasizes an optimistic view of human
beings, as persons who have the ability to
grow (human potential)
 Though it does not deny the effect of the
environment, it sees human beings as able to
transcend it to some degree
 It stresses health and actualization
 It is a reaction against a deterministic view of
human beings
 1st force: Psychodynamic Theory

 2nd force: Behavioral Theory

 3rd force: Humanistic Theory

Existentialist and Humanistic
Theorists Both…
 Believe in Free Will
 Humanist do not believe that human being are pushed
and pulled by mechanical forces, either of stimuli and
reinforcements (behaviorism) or of unconscious
instinctual impulses (psychoanalysis).
 Emphasize the uniqueness of each individual
 Believe that humans strive for an upper level of
capabilities.
 Humans seek the frontiers of creativity, the highest
reaches of consciousness and wisdom.
However…
 On Human Nature…
 Existentialists see it as non-existent or neutral
 Humanists see it as basically good
 Optimism vs. Pessimism
 Humanists optimistic about humanity and the future
 Existentialists tend to be much more gloomy
Abraham Maslow on Existential Gloom
 “I do not think we need to take
too seriously the European
existentialists’ harping on dread,
anguish, despair, and the like, for
which their only remedy seems to
be a stiff upper lip. This high IQ
whimpering on a cosmic scale
occurs whenever an external
source of values fails to work.
They should have learned from
the psychotherapists that the loss
of illusions and the discovery of
identity, though painful at first,
can ultimately be exhilarating and
strengthening.”
Maslow’s Three Types of Needs
 Basic Needs
 Needs to Know and Understand
 Aesthetic Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Basic Needs
Self-actualization
Needs
Esteem Needs

Love & Belonging Needs

Safety Needs

Biological Needs
Physiological Needs
 Needs for food, water, air, etc.

 One function of civilization is to satisfy these needs so

we can focus on the higher ones

 Behavioral research usually studies at this level

Safety Needs
 Needs for safety, order, security, etc.

 Focused on after physiological needs met

 Most commonly seen in children

 Seen in some mental disorders (e.g., Obsessive-

Compulsive Disorder, Anxiety Disorders,
Dependent Personality Disorder)
Belongingness & Love Needs
 The need for affiliation, for friends, supportive family,
group identification, intimate relationships
 This level and higher ones often not satisfied even in
affluent countries
 These needs being unfulfilled at the root of many
mental disturbances (depression, Borderline
Personality Disorder)
 Need to receive and to give love
Esteem Needs
 Need to be held in high regard by self and others (not
just “self-esteem”)
 comes from mastery, achievement, adequacy, feelings
of competence, confidence, independence
 Ideally this need met by the deserved respect of others
Self-Actualization Needs
 A person must actualize, that is make real, what exists
inside them as a potential
 Most other theorists wouldn’t see this as a need
 Freud would predict people would stop at lower needs
 Even Adler might predict stopping at esteem needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Basic Needs
Self-actualization
Needs
Esteem Needs

Love & Belongingness Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs
 Self Actualized People (the top of
the hierarchy)
 Are in touch with their spirituality (peak experiences)
 Are accurate in their perception of reality
 Are comfortable with themselves & others
 Are open, direct, spontaneous, independent, playful,
creative
 Focus on problems outside themselves, are concerned
w/ society, the world
 Need aloneness and privacy
 Establish deep intimate relationships
 Are non-conformists but highly ethical
 Self actualized people are not
perfect
 They are, however experiencing a high level of well
being and personal integration
 They are still growing
 What is a peak experience?
 A special moment when everything seems to fall into
place
 People transcend the self and are at one with the world
 Similar to a religious, or mystical experience
 A transformative experience
 A part of the process of self-actualization
 Can self-actualization be
measured?
 The Personal Orientation Inventory
(Shostrum, 1974) measures self-actualizing
characteristics, along with dimensions like
inner-outer orientation, ability to function
in the present etc…
 A research article using the POI to look at
the relationship between humanism and
religion can be found in the course Bb
library.
 Why doesn’t everyone live up to
his/her potential?
 The Jonah complex: fear of growth because
growth may lead to new situations we would not
know how to handle
 Psychological and/or spiritual growth requires
courage (in addition to grace)
Carl Rogers
Major philosophies and nature of humans
 Human beings are essentially rational,
constructive, positive, independent, realistic,
cooperative, trustworthy, accepting, forward
moving and full of potential. Humans, like all
organisms, naturally tend toward actualization of
their full potential. (Gilliland & James, 1998)
 Experience is key to Rogerian theory. Because
each person’s perception of his or her own
experience is unique, the client is the only expert
on his or her own life.
Major constructs
 Actualizing tendency. The inherent tendency of the person
to develop in ways that serve to maintain or promote
growth.
 Conditions of worth. A person’s worth is conditional when
his or her self-esteem is based on significant others’
valuation of experience.
 Congruence. The state of consonance among the person’s
acting, thinking and feeling states. When experiences are
wholly integrated into the self-concept.
 Empathic understanding. One perceives as if one were the
other person but without ever losing the “as if” condition.

(Gilliland & James, 1998)

Major constructs
 Experience (noun). All the cognitive and affective events
within the person that are available or potentially available
to his or her awareness.
 Experience (verb). To receive the impact of all the sensory
or physiological events happening at the present moment.
 Genuineness. The state where there is no difference
between the real and the perceived selves.
 Organismic valuing process. The process whereby
experiences are accurately perceived, constantly updated,
and valued in terms of the satisfaction experienced by the
person.

(Gilliland & James, 1998)

Major constructs
 Positive regard. The perception of the self-experience of
another person that leads the individual to feel warmth,
liking and respect for the acceptance of that person.
 Positive self-regard. A positive attitude toward the self that
is not dependent on the perceptions of significant others.
 Self-actualization tendency. The tendency of the person to
move toward achieving his or her full potential.
 Self-Concept. The person’s total internal view of self in
relation to the experiences of being and functioning within
the environment.

(Gilliland & James, 1998)

Major constructs
 Self-Experience. Any event in the individual’s
perceptual field that he or she sees as relating to
the “self,” “me,” or “I.”
 Unconditional Positive Regard. The individual’s
perception of another person without ascription of
greater or lesser worthiness to that person. It is
characterized by a total rather than a conditional
acceptance of the other person.
 Unconditional self-regard. The perception of the
self in such a way that no self-experience can be
discriminated as being more or less worthy of
positive regard than any other self-experience.

(Gilliland & James, 1998)

The Self
 According to Rogers, the Self:
 Is organized and consistent
 Includes one’s perceptions of all that comprises “I” or
“me”
 Includes the relationship among I or me an other
people and features of life, as well as the value and
importance of these relationships
 Is available to consciousness but it is not always
conscious at any given moment
 The shape of the self is constantly changing, yet
always recognizable
(Walker & Brokaw, 2005)
A self actualized person has the following
characteristics
 Open to experience
 Aware of all experience
 Deal w/change in creative ways
 Socially effective
 Lives existentially
 Lives in the here and now
 Trusts self
Major personality constructs
 Personality theory has not been of major concern
to person-centered therapists, rather the manner
in which change comes about in the human
personality has been the focus. (Gilliland & James,
1998)
 Each person is unique and has the ability to reach
his or her full potential.
 Once the self-concept is formed, two additional
needs are acquired:
 the need for positive regard from others
 the need for positive self-regard
Nature of “maladaptivity”
 Rogerian theory speaks primarily of “incongruence” as
the primary maladaptivity. Maladaptivity relates to
the blocks that are put in the road to actualization.
(Gilliland & James, 1998)
 Also, external locus of control and looking to others
for worth are seen as maladaptive.
A Growth-Promoting Climate
 Congruence - genuineness or realness
 Unconditional positive regard- acceptance and
caring, but not approval of all behavior
 Accurate empathic understanding – an ability to
deeply grasp the client’s subjective world
 Helper attitudes are more important than
knowledge
BF Skinner
Behaviour Modification
 Behaviour modification principles are based on a
branch of psychology known as behavioural theory.
 Behaviour, whether good or bad, is viewed as a
conditioned habit.
 The process of behaviour change is a matter of
reconditioning behaviour.
 B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist, is credited
with first developing this practice in the mid 1900s.
 His theory of operant conditioning formed the basis
for the principles behind the behaviour modification
approach.
Behaviour Modification
Behaviour modification, based on behaviourist principles,
operates on the following tenets:

1) All behaviour, appropriate as well as inappropriate, is

learned.
2) Behaviour is controlled by antecedents - events which
occur before a behaviour is exhibited, and by
consequences - events which occur after a behaviour is
exhibited.
2) These antecedents and consequences can be changed in
order to increase or decrease the chance that a given
behaviour will continue to be exhibited.
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
BF Skinner coined the term operant conditioning; it
means roughly changing of behaviour by the use of
reinforcement which is given after the desired
response. Skinner identified three types of responses
or operant that can follow behaviour.
Three types of responses
• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that
neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behaviour
being repeated.

• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that

increase the probability of a behaviour being repeated.
Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

• Punishers: Response from the environment that decrease

the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. Punishment
weakens behaviour.
Reinforces can be positive or
negative
Negative Reinforcement – the reinforcer is removed
after the response.
 Loud buzz in some cars when ignition key is turned
on; driver must put on safety belt in order to eliminate
irritating buzz (Gredler, 1992)  the buzz is a negative
reinforcer for putting on the seat-belt.
 Cleaning the house to get rid of disgusting mess
(Weiten, 1992), or cleaning the house to get rid of your
mother's nagging (Bootzin, et al , 1991; Leahy & Harris,
1989).  Nagging/Mess as negative reinforcer to
cleaning.
What is positive reinforcement?
 Reinforcement is a stimulus which follows and is
contingent upon a behaviour and increases the
probability of a behaviour being repeated.
 Positive reinforcement can increase the probability of
not only desirable behaviour but also undesirable
behaviour. For example, if a child whines in order to
get attention and is successful in getting it, the
attention serves as positive reinforcement which
increases the likelihood that the student will continue
to whine.
Reinforces can be positive or
negative
Positive Reinforcement – providing a consequence an
individual finds rewarding.
How should reinforcement be
delivered?
1. Reinforcement must be consistently delivered,
according to a planned reinforcement schedule. If it
is not, no connection will develop between
appropriate behaviour and the reinforcement and
the behaviour will not change.
How should reinforcement be
delivered?
2. Reinforcement must be delivered immediately or the
effect of reinforcement is reduced if not lost. In this
way, a contingency between behaviour and
reinforcement will be strengthened or maintained.
How should reinforcement be
delivered?
3. Improvement should be reinforced. Do not wait until
the desired behaviour is perfect to deliver
reinforcement. You should recognize improvement
and let the individual know that you recognize the
effort.
The problems with reinforcers -
What is satiation and how should
it be handled?
 Satiation is the term used to describe the situation of a
reinforcer losing its effectiveness. For example, if an
individual is receiving jellybeans as reinforcement, it is
likely that after a period of time he or she will tire of
them and no longer find them desirable.
 Satiation can also occur if too much reinforcement is
being delivered. Earning up to ten minutes of computer
time a day may serve as reinforcement for a long period
of time, while being given the opportunity to earn an
hour of computer time, for example, may quickly lead
to satiation.
The problems with reinforcers -
What is satiation and how should
it be handled?
When satiation begins, the rate at which the desired
behaviour is displayed tapers off until it stops.This
is very common with edible reinforcers.
Reinforcement in the form of activities, social
opportunities, and learning activities tend to be
more immune to satiation.
The problems with reinforcers -
What is satiation and how should
it be handled?
Zirpoli and Melloy (1993) suggest the following ways of
preventing satiation:
• Varying the reinforcer or using a different reinforcer for
each target behaviour.
• Monitoring the amount of reinforcement delivered and
using only enough to maintain the target behaviour.
• Avoiding edible reinforcers (if you must use edibles,
vary and apply minimally).
• Moving from a constant to an intermittent schedule of
reinforcement as soon as possible.
• Moving from primary to secondary reinforcers as soon
as possible.
Albert Bandura
Basic Premise
 We learn behavior through observation
 Vicarious reinforcement: Learn through observing
consequences of behaviors of others
Modeling
 Observe behavior of others and repeat the behavior
 Bobo doll studies (1963)
 Disinhibition: Weakening of inhibition through
exposure to a model
Factors Influencing Modeling: Impact
Tendency to Imitate
 Characteristics of the models: similarity, age, sex,
status, prestige, simple vs. complex behavior
 Characteristics of observers: Low self-confidence, low
self-esteem, reinforcement for imitation
 Reward consequences of behavior: Directly witnessing
associated rewards
The Observational Learning
Process: 4 Steps
 Attentional processes
 Retention processes
 Production processes
 Incentive and motivational processes
Step 3: Production Processes

 Taking imaginal and verbal representations and

translating into overt behavior- practice behaviors
 Receive feedback on accuracy of behavior- how well
have you imitated the modeled behavior?
 Important in mastering difficult skills
 Ex: Driving a car
Step 1: Attentional Processes
 Developing cognitive processes to pay attention to a
model- more developed processes allow for better
attention
 Must observe the model accurately enough to imitate
behavior
Step 2: Retention Processes
 To later imitate behavior, must remember aspects of
the behavior
 Retain information in 2 ways:
 Imaginal internal representation: Visual image Ex:
Forming a mental picture
 Verbal system: Verbal description of behavior Ex:
Silently rehearsing steps in behavior
Step 4: Incentive and Motivational
Processes
 With incentives, observation more quickly becomes
action, pay more attention, retain more information
 Incentive to learn influenced by anticipated
reinforcements
Aspects of the Self: Self-reinforcement and
Self-efficacy
 Self-reinforcement: Rewards or punishments given
to oneself for reaching, exceeding or falling short
of personal expectations
 Ex: Pride, shame, guilt
 Self-efficacy: Belief in ability to cope with life
 Meeting standards: Enhances self-efficacy
 Failure to meet standards: Reduces self-efficacy
Self-Efficacy
 High self-efficacy
 Believe can deal effectively with life events
 Confident in abilities
 Expect to overcome obstacles effectively
 Low self-efficacy
 Feel unable to exercise control over life
 Low confidence, believe all efforts are futile
Sources of Information in
Determining Self-efficacy
 Performance attainment
 Most influential
 Role of feedback
 More we achieve, more we believe we can achieve
 Leads to feelings of competency and control
Sources of Information in
Determining Self-efficacy
 Vicarious experience
 Seeing others perform successfully
 If they can, I can too
 Verbal persuasion
 Verbal reminders of abilities
 Physiological and emotional arousal
 Related to perceived ability to cope
 Calm, composed feelings: Higher self-efficacy
 Nervous, agitated feelings: Lower self-efficacy
Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-
efficacy
 Childhood
 Infancy: Direct modeling immediately following
observation, develop self-efficacy with control over
environment
 By age 2: Developed attentional, retention and
production processes to model behavior some time after
observation, not immediately
Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-
efficacy
 Adolescence
 Involves coping with new demands
 Success depends on level of self-efficacy established
during childhood
Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-
efficacy
 Adulthood: 2 Periods
 Young adulthood:
 Adjustments: Career, marriage, parenthood
 High self-efficacy to adjust successfully
 Middle adulthood:
 Adjustment: Reevaluate career, family life
 Need to find opportunities to continue to enhance self-
efficacy
Developmental Stages of Modeling and Self-
efficacy
 Old age:
 Decline in mental/physical function, retirement
 Requires reappraisal of abilities
 Belief in ability to perform a task is key throughout the
lifespan
Application of Social Learning Theory:
Behavior Modification
 Fears and phobias
 Guided participation: Observe and imitate
 Covert modeling: Imaginal
 Anxiety
 Fear of medical treatment
 Test anxiety
Assessment of Bandura’s Theory:
Self-efficacy
 Age and gender differences
 Physical appearance
 Academic performance
 Career choice and job performance
 Physical health
 Mental health
 Coping with stress
Assessment of Bandura’s Theory: Television
and Aggressive Behaviors
 Relationship between watching violence and imitating
violence
Assessment of Bandura’s Theory
 Strengths:
 Focus on observable behavior- research support
 Practical application to real-world problems
 Large-scale changes