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Guru bhalge

Introduction to Computers

Dr. N.Rakesh
Asst. Professor(SG)
Dept. Computer Science & Engineering
ASE, Bangalore
 WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

Computer is an electronic device which capable of solving

problems and manipulating data.
Computer can be defined in terms of its functions. It can
i) accept data.
ii) store data.
iii) process data as desired by doing some mathematical and
logical operations.
iv) retrieve the stored data as and when required.
v) print the result in desired format.

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Data Vs. Information
Data : Data in computer terminology mean raw facts and figures.
For example,’Mohan’,1977,A . Data are processed to form
information.
Information : It means what we get after processing data (meaningful
data).
For example, ’Mohan, whose roll number is 1977, has got grade A’ is
an information as it is conveying some meaning.
This process of turning data into information is also known as
information processing.
FUNCTIONING OF A COMPUTER :
Certain input is needed to accomplish a task, a process is carried out on the
input to obtain the output.
Every process follows this Input-Process-Output cycle (IPO cycle).
Ex: c=a+b a=10,b=5 & c=15(output) or Paytm example

Functional Components of a Computer :

1. Input Unit :
• It is formed by the input devices attached to the computer.
• Ex. Keyboard, mouse, magnetic ink character reader (MICR), optical mark
reader (OMR), optical character reader (OCR), joystick etc.
• It is responsible for taking input and converting it into computer
understandable form (the binary code).
• Basic Structure of a computer :

INPUT CENTRAL OUTPUT

UNIT PROCESSING UNIT
UNIT (CPU)
Storage
Devices

MAIN MEMORY

• Computer can understand only two stages ON/OFF or High/Low voltage or the binary language
that uses just two symbols : 1 for ON and 0 for OFF.

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) :

• It is the control centre for a computer.
• It guides, directs and governs its performance.
• It is the brain of the computer.
• CPU has two components : (i) CU (Control Unit)
(ii) ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Arithmetic Logic Unit : It performs all the four arithmetical (+,-,*,/) and
some logical (<,>,<=,>=,<>) operations.
• When two numbers are required to be added, these numbers are sent
from memory to ALU where addition takes place and the result is put
back in the memory.
• For logical operation also same procedure. The result of logical operation
is either TRUE or FALSE.
Control Unit :
• It controls and guides the interpretation, flow and manipulation of all data and information.
• It sends control signals until the required operations are done properly by ALU and memory.
• Another function of CU is program execution.
• It gets program instructions from memory and executes them one after the other.
• After getting the instructions from memory in CU, the instruction is decoded and interpreted.
• Then the asked operation is carried out.
• After the work of this instruction is completed, control unit sends signal to memory to send the
next instruction in sequence to CU.
• It also control the flow of data from input devices to memory and from memory to output
devices.
Output Unit :
• It is formed by the output devices attached to the computer.
• The o/p coming from the CPU is in the form of electronic binary signals which needs conversion in some form
which can be easily understood by human beings. i.e. characters, graphical or audio visual.
• This function of conversion is performed by output units.
• Example. VDU (Visual Display Unit), printer, plotter, speech synthesizer and coder etc.

The Memory :
• Def : A memory cell may be defined as a device which can store a symbol selected from a set of
symbols. Each of these cells is further broken down into smaller parts known as bits.
• A bit means a binary digit. i.e., either 0 or 1.
• A bit is an element unit of the memory.
• Def. A group of 8 bits is called a byte and a group of 4 bits is called
a nibble.
• One byte is the smallest unit which can represent a data item or a
character.
• One KB(Kilobyte) -> 2¹º -> 1024 bytes.
• One MB(Megabyte) -> 2¹º KB -> 1024 x 1024 bytes.
• One GB(Gigabyte) -> 2¹º MB -> 1024 x 1024 x 1024 bytes.
• One TB(Terabyte) -> 2¹º GB -> 1024 x 1024 x 1024 x 1024 bytes.
• Two types of memory : (i) Volatile - > Primary Memory
(ii) Non Volatile -> Secondary Memory

Hardware and Software :

• Hardware : It represent the physical and tangible components of
the computer i.e., the components that can be seen and touched.
• The electronic, electrical and mechanical equipment that makes
up a computer is called hardware.
• Example. Input devices, Output Devices, CPU, floppy disk, hard
disk, etc.
Peripherals :
Def. Peripherals are the devices that surround the system unit. E.g., the keyboard,
mouse, speakers, printers, monitors etc.
A computer consists of five primary hardware components :
(i) input devices
(ii) CPU
(iii) memory
(iv) output devices
(v) storage devices
Software : It represent the set of programs that govern the operation of a
computer system and make the hardware run.
Three types :
(i)Operating System
(ii)Language Processor
(iii)Application Software
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

1- Speed
Computer can work very fast .
Computer can perform millions of instructions and even more per second.
The speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of second) or
nanosecond (10-9 part of a second).
The speed of microprocessors, called the clock speed, is measured in
megahertz.
A microprocessor that runs at 200 MHz executes 200 million cycles per
second .

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2- Accuracy
The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed
with the same accuracy.
The accuracy level is determined on the basis of design of computer.
The errors in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.
3- Diligence
A computer is a lack of concentration.
It can work for hours without creating any error
Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of work.

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4- Versatility
It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work.
5-Power of Remembering
Any amount of information can be stored in computer and recalled as
long as you require it, for any numbers of years.
It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a
computer and when to lose or retrieve these data.

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6- No IQ (intelligence quotient)
Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction
from the user and it cannot take its own decision as you can.
7- No Feeling
It does not have feelings , it does not get tired even after long hours of work.
8- Storage
The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of
data.
You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, CDs Flash
Memory which can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other
computers.

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 COMPUTER SCIENCE

• Computer science is the discipline that seeks to build a scientific

foundation for such topics as computer design, computer
programming, information processing, algorithmic solutions of
problems, and the algorithmic process itself.
• It provides the underpinnings for today's computer applications as
well as the foundations for tomorrow's applications
• Informally, an algorithm is a set of steps that defines how a task is
performed
• A representation of an algorithm is called a program
• The process of developing a program, encoding it in machine-
compatible form, and inserting it into a machine is called
programming.
• Programs, and the algorithms they represent, are collectively
referred to as software, in contrast to the machinery itself, which is
known as hardware.
 Central Questions of Computer Science

• Which problems can be solved by algorithmic processes?

• How can algorithm discovery be made easier?
• How can techniques of representing and communicating algorithms
be improved?
• How can characteristics of different algorithms be analyzed and
compared?
• How can algorithms be used to manipulate information?
• How can algorithms be applied to produce intelligent behavior?
• How does the application of algorithms affect society?
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 Figure. The central role of algorithms in computer science

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Abstraction

• Abstraction: The distinction between the external properties of an

entity and the details of the entity’s internal composition. Ex: CPU
processing
• Abstract tool: A “component” that can be used without concern for
the component’s internal properties Ex: Paint tool box

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 EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS :

Abacus :
• Around 3000 years before the birth of Jesus Christ, the Mesopotamians
quite unknowingly laid the foundation of the computer era.
They discovered the earliest form of a bead-and-wire
counting machine, which subsequently came to be known
as abacus.
• An abacus consists of beads divided into two parts which are movable on the rods of the two parts. Addition and
multiplication etc. of numbers is done by using the place value of the digits of the numbers and position of beads
in the abacus.
Napier’s ‘Logs’ and ‘Bones’ :
 John Napier (1550-1617) developed the idea of Logarithm. He used ‘logs’ to transform multiplication problem to
addition problem.
Pascal’s Adding Machine :
 Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, invented a machine in 1642 made up of gears which was used for adding
numbers quickly. This machine was named as Adding Machine ( Pascaline ) and was capable of addition and
subtraction.
 The adding machine
consisted of numbered
toothed wheels having
unique position values. The
rotation of wheels
controlled the addition and
subtraction operations.

 Leibnitz’s Calculator :
Gottfried Leibnitz, a German Mathematician,
improved an adding machine and
constructed a new machine in 1671 that was
able to perform multiplication and division
as well. This machine performed
multiplication through repeated addition of
numbers.

• Leibnitz’z machine used stepped cylinder each with nine teeth of varying lengths instead of wheels
as was used by Pascal.
 Jacquard’s Loom :
• Joseph Jacquard manufactured punched cards at the end of American revolution and
used them to control looms in 1801. Thus the entire control weaving process was
automatic.
• The entire operation was under a program’s control.

 Babbage’s Difference Engine :

Charles Babbage. A professor of
mathematics, developed a machine called
Difference Engine in the year 1822.

This machine was expected to calculate

logarithmic tables to a high degree of
precision. It was made to calculate various
mathematical functions.
Babbage’s Analytical Engine :
• This engine was capable of performing all four arithmetic operations as well as
comparison.
 He included the concept of central processor,
storage area, memory and input - output
devices in his design.
The two revolutionary innovations
incorporated in Anaytical Engine were
comparisons and modification of stored
information.
• Charles Babbage known as the ‘Father of Modern Computers’.
• Hollerith’s Machine :
In 1887,an American named Herman Hollerith
fabricated the first electromechanical punched
card tabulator that used punched cards for
input, output and instructions.
This machine was used by American
Department of Census to compile their 1880
census data and were able to complete compilation in 3 years which
earlier used to take around 10 years.
Mark-I :
Prof. Howard Aiken in U.S.A.
constructed in 1943 an electromechanical
computer named Mark-I which could
multiply two 10-digit number in 5 seconds.
It was the first machine which could
perform according to pre programmed
instructions automatically without any manual interference.
• This was the first operational general purpose computer.

GENERATIONS OF MODERN COMPUTER :

First Generation Computers(1949-55) :
• It used thermionic valves (vacuum tubes) and machine language was used for giving instructions.
• It used the concept of stored program.
• Large in size
• Programming was difficult task.
• Examples :
1. ENIAC : (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator)
 First electronic computer developed in 1946 by a team lead by Prof.Eckert and
Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania in U.S.A.
 Used high speed vacuum tube switching devices
 Very small memory
 Used for calculating the trajectories of missiles.
 Took 200 micro sec for addition and 2800 micro sec for multiplication.
 30x50 feet long, 30 tons weight, 18000 vacuum tubes, 70000 resistors, 10000
capacitors, 6000 switches, used 150000 watts of electricity and cost $400000.
2. EDVAC : (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
 Binary arithmetic was used in construction
 Completed in 1950
 Concept of stored program was used
 Operation became faster since the computer could rapidly access both the
program and data.
3. EDSAC : (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer)
 Developed by Prof. M. V. Wilkes at Cambridge University in 1949
Used mercury delayed lines for storage
Concept of stored program used
This allowed easy implementation of program loops.

4. UNIVEC – I : (Universal Automatic Computer – I)

Commercial production of stored program electronic computers
Built by Univac division of Remington Rand and delivered in 1951.
Limitations of First Gen. Computers :
Slow operating Speed
Restricted computing capacity
High power consumption
Short mean time between failures
Very large space requirements
Limited programming capabilities
Second Generation Computers (1956-65)
 Invention of transistors in 1946, which were highly reliable compared to vacuum tubes, less
space and required only 1/10 of the power required by tubes.
 Took 1/10 time (switching from 0 to 1 and 1 to 0) needed by tubes and were ten times cheaper
than those using tubes
 Invention of magnetic cores which were used to construct large random access memories.
 These are tiny ferrite rings (0.02 inch dia.) that can be magnetised in either clockwise or anti-
clock wise direction. The two directions represent 0 and 1.
 Used transistors in place of vacuum tubes and development of magnetic disk storage devices
made these computers more reliable
 HLL like FORTRAN, COBOL, Algol and Snobol etc. developed
 Operating Systems came in to existence
 Commercial applications rapidly developed
 Some second generation computers :
Model Size Area of Applicatio
IBM 1401 Small to Medium Business
IBM 1620 Small Scientific
IBM 7094 Large Scientific & Business
CDC 1604 Medium to Large Scientific
CDC 3600 Large Scientific
RCA 501 Medium Business
UNIVAC 1108 Large Scientific & Business

Third Generation Computers (1966-1975)

Replaced transistors with Integrated Circuits which was inverted
by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in 1958.
A single I.C. has many transistors, resistors and capacitors
along with the associated circuitry encapsulated in a small
package with many leads.
In Small Scale Integrated (SSI) circuits about 10 transistors per chip used
 Medium Scale Integrated (MSI) circuits developed with 100 transistors per
chip
 Size of main memories reached about 4 MB.
 Highly reliable
 Relatively inexpensive
 Faster
 Examples : IBM-360 Series, ICL-1900 series, IBM-370/168, ICL-2900,
Honeywell Model 316, Honeywell-6000 series.
Fourth Generation Computers (1976- present)
 Development of Large and Very Large Scale Integrated(VLSI) circuits
packing about 50000 transistors in a chip.
 Semiconductor memories replaced magnetic core memories
 Emergence of the microprocessor (CPU on a single chip) led to the
emergence of extremely powerful personal computers.
 Costs of computers came down rapidly
 Speed of microprocessors, size of memory and Hard Disk increased
 Use of RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computers)
 For larger disks RAID technology (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) used
 CDROMs becoming popular, which can store info. Upto 650 MBs.

Fifth Generation Computers (Coming Generation)

 Based on artificial intellegence, are still in development
 Voice recognition is being used today
 Parallel processing and semiconductors are used in fifth gen. computers.
 The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and
self organization.
 Characteristic : Ability to apply previously gained knowledge, draw conclusion and
then execute a task.

 Computers will have to be able to classify information, search large database

rapidly, plan, apply the rules which humans regard as clear thinking, make
decision and learn from their mistakes.

 It also include speech and visual recognition as input devices.

 Applications for Fifth Generation Computers :

 Intelligent robots

 Intelligent system that could control the route of a missile and defense systems
that could fend off attacks

 Word processors that could be controlled by means of speech recognition

 Programs that could translate documents from one language to another.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
The computers have been classified into three categories.
1. Digital Computers 2. Analog Computers 3. Hybrid Computers
COMPUTERS

Digital Analog Hybrid

Purpose-Wise Size and Performance Wise

Special Purpose General Purpose Embedded Micro Mini Mainframes Super

Programmable Laptop Workstations

Digital Computers :
• The digital computers work upon discontinuous data. They convert
the data into digits (0 and 1) and all operations are carried out on
these digits at extremely fast rates.
• Digital computers are much faster than analog computers and far
more accurate.
• Used for business and scientific applications
• Classification of Digital computers in two ways :
(i) Purpose wise Digital Computers : Classified in to two ways
1. Special-purpose Computer : It is designed to perform a specific task.
-> The instructions to carry out task are permanently stored in the
machine.
-> Computers are not versatile.
2. General Purpose Computer : It can work on different types of
programs input to it and so used in countless applications.
-> Programs are not permanentaly stored but are input at the
time of execution.
-> Computers are versatile.
(ii) Size and performance wise Digital Computers :Classified in to
following types
1. Embedded Computers : Exist in a wide range of sizes and
power.
-> The smallest are embedded within the circuitry of appliances,
such as televisions, washing machines and wrist watches.
-> Programmed for a specific task.
2. Microcomputers : It is a computer whose CPU is a
microprocessor.
-> Microprocessor is a processor whose all components are on a
single integrated – circuit chip.
-> Normally used in offices, homes, schools, shops, stores etc.
Three categories of Microcomputers :
Three categories of microcomputers :
(i)PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) :
Programmable computers
Vary in their power, speed, memory, and physical size.
Smallest of these computers can be held in one hand.
Used as notepads, scheduling systems, and address books
They can connect to worldwide computer networks if equipped with a
cellular phone.

(ii) Laptop (Notebook) Computers and Desktop Personal Computers (PCs) :

Used in business and at home to communicate on computer networks,
for word processing to track finances,
play games
Large amounts of internal memory
Equipped with kb, mouse, track ball, monitor or LCD
 Laptop have similar h/w and s/w as PCs, but they are more compact and
have flat, lightweight LCDs instead of video display monitors.
 Laptop computers are so called as they can sit on a Lap and Desktop
computers are so called as they can sit on a desk.
(iii) Workstations :
 Similar to PCs but have greater memory and more extensive mathematical
abilities
 Connected to other workstations t or PC to exchange data.
 Found in scientific, industrial and business environments that require high
levels of computational abilities.

3. Minicomputers :
 Also called mid range servers
 More powerful than micro computers in terms of processing power and
capabilities.
 Multiuser system (Multi users can work simultaneously)
Greater storage capacity and larger memories compared to micro
comp.
Capable of handling more i/p and o/p devices.
Examples : PDP-11, VAX, 7500 MAGNUM etc.

4. Mainframe Computers :
Designed to handle huge volumes of data and information.
Can support more than 100 users at same time
Large and expensive
Great processing speeds and very large storage capacity and
memory as compared to mini comp.
Possess and work with more than one processor at the same time
Very sophisticated operating systems are needed to control and
supervise their operations.
Examples : ICL 39, CDC 6600, VAX 8842, IBM 3090/600, IBM 4381
5. Super Computers :
Most powerful among the digital computers
Consist of several processors running together, so
very powerful and faster
Capable of handling huge amounts of calculations
It can perform billions of instructions per second
Today’s some super computers have the computing
capability equal to that of 40,000 micro computers
These computers cost in 15-20 million dollar range.
Used for weather forecasting, nuclear science
research, aerodynamic modelling, seismology,
metrology etc.
Examples : CRAY X-MP-14, CDC-205, ETA GF-10,
FUJITSU VP-400, NEC SX-2, PARAM, PACE
 Fro general purpose applications, supercomputers
do not make the ideal choice.
It can process information of only a certain kind.
Super computers
 Its power measured in flops (floating point operations per second)
 Analog Computers :
As input continuous quantities are used
Computations are carried out with physical quantities such as voltage, length,
current, temperature etc.
Operate by measuring rather than counting
All calculations take place in parallel and hence are faster
Accuracy is poor as compared to digital comp.
Mostly used in engg. And sci. applications.
Example : An electronic weighing scale

 Hybrid Computers :
Utilize the best qualities of both the digital and analog comp.
Some calculations take place in analog manner and rest of them take place in
digital manner
Best used in Hospitals, also used for weather forecasting
QUIZ
• One mega byte is equivalent to?
1. 210 bytes
2. 220 bytes
3. 230 bytes
4. None of these
• Which of the following are parts of the CPU?
1. ALU
2. Memory
3. CU
4. Input device
5. Main Memory
• Which of the following is not hardware?
1. Hard Disk
2. Printer
3. Keyboard
4. CPU
5. Assembler
6. Program to print table of 13
• Which of the following are parts of the CPU?
1. ALU
2. Memory
3. CU
4. Input device
5. Main Memory
• The modern age of data processing began with the competition of the computer?
1. Analytical Engine
2. ENIAC
3. MARK 1
4. UNIVAC I
• A Micro processor is
1. A solid state device
2. Capable of performing Arithmetic operations
3. Capable of performing Logical operations
4. All the above
• In computer science ,by information we mean
1. Any output coming out from computer
2. Processed data put out from computer
3. A report printed by computer
4. Plural of data
• The CPU
1. Is operated from the control panel
2. Is controlled by the input data entering the system
3. Controls the storage unit
4. Controls all input , output, processing
• A data is a collection of-
1. Raw facts
2. Processing
3. Transformations
4. None of these
• Which of the following are software and hardware?
1. Transistor
2. FORTON
3. Compiler
4. Integrated Circuit
• Who invented the punched card?
1. Charles Babbage
2. Herman Hollerith
3. Both 1 and 2
4. None of these
• Define each of the following-
1. Nibble
2. Byte
3. Kilobyte
4. Megabyte
5. Gigabyte
6. Tetra byte
• Which of the following does not represent an I/O device?
1. Speaker which beeps
2. Plotter
3. Joystick
4. ALU
• Storage of 1 KB means the following number of bytes-
1. 1000
2. 964
3. 1024
4. 1064