CELLULAR REPRODUCTION AND

GENETICS

Key questions
- What are the different types of cell
division?
- How are traits passed on the next
generation?
*Heredity is the sharing of features,
where traits are passed on from
parents to offspring.
*Variation demonstrates differences
among individuals.
*Genetics is the study of heredity and
variation. It aims to understand how
traits can be passed on to the next
generation and how variation arises.
*Every living thing undergoes
reproduction. The nutrients taken by
an individual will provide for energy
for metabolic processes, for growth
and development as well as
reproduction. The cellular level of
reproduction, in the form of cell
division, provides for the backdrop for
the organismal level of reproduction.
This module will differentiate the
two types of cell division, mitosis
and meiosis, as well as correlate
heredity with the behavior of the
chromosomes in the cell during
meiosis.
The Chromosome
All living things contain what we call the
genetic material that serves as the set of
instructions that direct the activities and
functions of the cells. These genetic materials,
also known as the deoxyribonucleic acid or
DNA, are passed on from one generation to the
next to ensure the continuity of life. In
eukaryotic cells (cells with organelles), the DNA
are bound with proteins and are organized as
beads on strings to form chromosomes.
*The number of chromosomes in a
cell is characteristic of the species
to which it belongs.
-For example, humans have 46
chromosomes while rice have 12.
The Cell Cycle

- The chromosomes of a cell change form as the

cell transitions from one stage to another

- Divided into two stages: the interphase where

the chromosomes are long and extended and
are also referred to as chromatin, and the cell
division phase where the chromosomes become
condensed or thickened.
The Cell Cycle
The interphase
-refers to the period that follows one
cell division and precedes another.
During this stage, the cell does not
divide; it merely grows. The
chromosome doubles or replicates
itself because the DNA molecule
contained in the chromosome
produces an exact copy of itself.
Three Substages:
1. First gap period or G1
-The stage from the formation of a
new cell until it begins to replicate its
DNA, during which time the cell grows
initially. This stage is characterized by
protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
synthesis. RNA, which is synthesized
based on the DNA, is then used to
synthesize proteins.
2. The synthesis stage or S
-the middle stage of interphase, is
the period of DNA synthesis or
replication. The chromosomes are
duplicated in preparation for the
next cell division.
3. The second gap period or G2,
-falls between the S period and the
next cell division
-represents a period of rapid cell
growth to prepare for cell division.
Cell Division / M phase

Alternating with the interphase is

the cell division phase.

In eukaryotic cells, there are two

types of cell division: mitosis and
meiosis.
1. Mitosis
-This type of cell division produces
two identical cells with the same
number of chromosomes. Mitosis
is divided into four stages.
STAGE A: Prophase.
-nuclear membrane and nucleoli may
still be present.
-chromosomes are thicker and shorter
because of repeated coiling.
-each chromosome is made up of two
identical sister chromatids as a
consequence of replication of DNA
during the S phase.
-The two chromatids produced from one
chromosome are still attached at one point,
called the centromere -may divide the
chromosome into the shorter arms, also called
the p arms (‘p’ stands for petite in French) and
the longer q arms.
-If the chromosomes are stained using Giemsa,
alternating dark and light regions will appear.
These are the heterochromatin (more coiled and
dense) and euchromatin.
Parts of a chromosome
STAGE B: Metaphase
-nuclear membrane has disappeared
while the highly coiled chromosomes
align at the metaphase plate, an
imaginary plane equidistant between
the cell’s two poles.
-Spindle fibers are also formed. Each
fiber binds to a protein called the
kinetochore at the centromere of each
sister chromatid of the chromosome.
STAGE C: Anaphase
-The paired centromeres of each
chromosome separate towards the
opposite poles of the cells as they are
pulled by the spindle fibers through
their kinetochores.
-This liberates the sister chromatids.
Each chromatid is now regarded as a
full-fledged chromosome and is only
made up of one sister chromatid.
STAGE D: Telophase
-The chromosomes are now at the
opposite poles of the spindle. They start to
uncoil and become indistinct under the
light microscope.
-A new nuclear membrane forms around
them while the spindle fibers disappear.
–There is also cytokinesis or the division of
the cytoplasm to form two separate
daughter cells immediately after mitosis.
2. Meiosis
-The number of chromosomes normally remains
the same within the species. It does not double
or triple for every generation. This suggests that
a different kind of cell division must take place in
an individual.
-from a Greek word which means “to make
smaller.”
-reduces the chromosome number in half that
takes place in plants and animals whenever
gametes, or sex cells, are formed through the
process called gametogenesis.
-a special type of cell division where
the cell undergoes two rounds of cell
division to produce four daughter cells,
each with half the chromosome
number as the original parent cell and
with a unique set of genetic material
as a result of exchange of chromosome
segments during the process of
crossing over.
*The first round of meiotic
division, also known as meiosis I,
consists of four stages: prophase I,
metaphase I, anaphase I, and
telophase I.
STAGE A: Prophase I.
-Meiosis starts with this stage and includes
the following substages:
Leptotene. -Each chromosome is made up
of two long threads of sister chromatids as
a result of replication during the S phase of
the cell cycle.
Zygotene. -The chromosomes begin to pair
off. Pairs of chromosomes are called
homologous chromosomes, and this
pairing process is exact.
Pachytene. -The chromosomes contract due to
repeated coiling. Crossing over takes place
during this stage where a segment of a sister
chromatid of one chromosome is exchanged
with the same segment of the sister chromatid
of the homologous chromosome through the
formation of a cross-linkage of the segments
called a chiasma. After crossing over, the sister
chromatids of each chromosome may no longer
be identical with each other based on the
genetic material they contain.
 Crossing over of homologous
chromosomes during meiosis I
Diplotene. The chromosomes
begin to uncoil.
Diakinesis. The paired
chromosomes disperse in the
nucleus.
STAGE B: Metaphase I.
-The paired chromosomes arrange
themselves along the equatorial
plate.
STAGE C: Anaphase I.
Spindle fibers form and attach to the
centromeres of the chromosomes.
The homologous chromosomes
separate from each other completely
and start their movement toward the
poles of the cells as they are pulled by
the spindle fibers. As the centromere
of each chromosome does not divide,
the sister chromatids remain together.
STAGE D: Telophase I.
This is the stage when the chromosomes reach
their respective poles. Cytokinesis follows and
two daughter cells are formed. Each cell now
has only half the chromosome number because
only one chromosome from each pair goes to
the daughter cell. This is called the haploid
condition, in contrast to the diploid condition at
the beginning of meiosis I where each
chromosome pair is intact. Telophase I is
followed by interphase II.
*The second meiotic division, also known
as meiosis II, is mitotic in nature and
consists of the following stages: prophase
II, metaphase II, anaphase II and
telophase II; these stages are identical with
the mitotic stages.
*The results are four cells, two from each
daughter cell from meiosis I, with one half
the diploid chromosome number and with
only one sister chromatid for each
chromosome.
Stages of meiosis in the squash anther
Completed table: Mitosis Meiosis
Number of daughter cells produced Two Four
Number of chromosomes is halved.
(Yes/No) No Yes
Pairing of homologous chromosomes
take place. (Yes/No) No Yes
The daughter cells produced are always
identical in terms of genetic material.
(Yes/No) Yes No
Role of Meiosis in Gametogenesis

*Gametes such as eggs and sperms unite

during fertilization, forming a diploid
zygote. The zygote has one set of
chromosomes from the male parent (23)
and another set from the female
parent(23). Thus, the zygote has 46
chromosomes. The zygote divides many
times. This produces a new diploid
multicellular organism.
*Sperm cells are produced in the testes of
male.Meiosis produces four cells which are
very small but of similar size. These cells
become spermatozoa (singular form is
spermatozoon) or sperms. The nucleus is
found in the head of the sperm;
mitochondria are found at the midpiece
that connects the head to the tail. These
mitochondria provide the energy for the
movement of the sperm’s tail.
*In female, egg cells are produced in the ovary. When
a cell in the ovary undergoes meiosis, new cells which
differ in size are produced. After meiosis I, two cells –
one big and one small – are produced. Meiosis II
produces one big and one small cell from the first big
cell. The small cell produced from meiosis I may or
may not divide. If it does, two small cells are
produced. The big cell becomes the egg cell; the small
cells disintegrate. The egg cell contains a lot of stored
food which is used by the growing embryo at the start
of its development. In fertilization, the tiny sperm cell
only contributes its genetic material found in the
head.
When Something Goes Wrong During
Meiosis

Down’s syndrome
-named after Dr. Langdon Down who
first studied the condition.
-an abnormal condition cause by
accidents that affect the functioning of
the spindle fibers or the movement of
one or more chromosomes.
For example, when chromosomes in a pair
fail to separate from each other during
Meiosis I, the resulting gamete acquires
both members of a pair of chromosomes.
If this involves chromosome pair 21, for
example, and one of the gametes contains
two copies of the chromosome, then the
individual produced will have 47
chromosomes in his or her cells (with three
copies of chromosome 21)
The extra chromosome 21 will lead to
an imbalance of genetic material in the
cell. People with this condition suffer
from variable degrees of mental
retardation, sterility, and increased risk
beyond the age of 40 of Alzheimer’s
disease, which affects the functioning
of the brain. Down’s syndrome is
usually associated with pregnancy in
women above 35 years of age.
Cri du chat syndrome
- is French for cat’s cry, which is the sound a
baby with this condition makes when he/she
cries.
- a condition where a piece of chromosome
breaks off and gets lost. The effects of this
accident depend on the particular genetic
material lost. For example, when a part of
chromosome 5 is lost, the afflicted individual
will have a face that is round, moonlike, cries
feebly and is mentally and physically retarded.
*Several drugs may cause breaks or
other abnormalities in the
chromosomes. Chlorpromazine (a
popular tranquilizer),
diphenhydramine (an antihistamine),
and lysergic acid diethylamide or LSD
(a hallucinogen) are some drugs
known to cause breaks in the
chromosomes.
Mendelian Genetics

Gregor Mendel
- was an Augustinian monk in a monastery in
Brünn, Austria Hungarian Empire (now Brno,
Czech Republic). He was interested in
investigating how individual traits were
inherited. He wanted to find out whether both
parents contributed equally to the traits of the
offspring. He also wanted to know if the traits
present in the offspring were produced by the
blending of the traits of the parents
- chose the garden pea (Pisum
sativum) for his experiments. Before
he started his experiments, Mendel
first produced pure-breeding plants.
Mendel allowed his pea plants to self-
pollinate for many generations until all
the offspring had the same features as
the parents, generation after
generation.
- When he has pure-breeding plants,
Mendel began cross-pollinating peas with
contrasting traits. The pure-breeding peas
constituted the parental or P1 generation.
All offspring of these crosses resembled
one another. For example, when he
crossed pea plants that produced round
seeds with pea plants that produced
wrinkled seeds, all the offspring had round
seeds.
-The offspring of the parental cross are
called the first filial (F1) generation. In
Mendel’s experiments, the F1
generation are also called hybrids
because they resulted from a cross
between two pure-breeding plants
with contrasting traits (for example,
pea plants with round seeds crossed
with pea plants with wrinkled seeds).
When the plants from the F1
generation were crossed with each
other or self-pollinated, the
offspring (F2 or second filial
generation) were of two types.