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Liquid Crystal Devices: Dr. Sally E. Day S.day@ee - Ucl.ac - Uk
Liquid Crystal Devices: Dr. Sally E. Day S.day@ee - Ucl.ac - Uk
Liquid Crystal Devices: Dr. Sally E. Day S.day@ee - Ucl.ac - Uk
s.day@ee.ucl.ac.uk
1
Abstract:
Liquid Crystals Displays (LCD) – very common, low power, light-weight displays,
as well as larger area flat panel displays for monitors and TV applications.
Liquid Crystals have a remarkable electro-optic coefficient, a large birefringence
is switched with a very low voltage.
Newer displays require complex structures with careful control of small features
in the liquid crystal. This makes them of interest in other applications
besides displays.
This tutorial will cover the physical properties essential for the operation of liquid
crystal devices including displays and non-display applications.
2
Contents:
1. Structure-property relationships in liquid crystals
a. Phases of liquid crystals
b. Order parameter in liquid crystals
c. Anisotropy in a liquid: Dielectric, optical and viscoelastic properties
d. Molecular structure and influence on the physical properties
2. Optical properties of liquid crystals
a. Birefringence
b. Polarisation of light
c. Control of polarisation
3. Structure of liquid crystal devices (LCD)
a. Alignment
b. Basic construction of LCDs
4. Optical properties of display and other devices
a. Twisted nematic, In-plane switching, Vertically aligned nematic
b. Holograms and Beam steering
c. Micro and nano-structures and liquid crystals 3
Structure property relationships
Phases of liquid crystals
4
Structure property relationships
Phases of liquid crystals
• Liquid crystals are liquids, but have some additional order
associated with them, which is crystalline like.
• The simplest is the nematic phase:- the rods align in a particular
direction, but have no positional order.
• Nematic liquid crystals are ‘milky’ looking liquids
5
Structure property relationships
Phases of liquid crystals
• Smectic phases have the additional order of layers, but they are
not precise layers, but ‘density waves’
• In addition to layering, there may be some other order, e.g.
tilting within the layer.
• Smectic liquid crystals tend to be ‘wax’ like substances
6
Structure property relationships
Phases of liquid crystals
• Other smectic phases have additional order within the layers
• This order may be in the form of hexagonal packing
• The phases can be identified by the patterns that form and can
be seen using a polarising microscope, or by X-ray scattering.
• The order between the molecules can also be seen by NMR
7
Structure property relationships
Phases of liquid crystals –
Discotic Liquid crystals
• Disc shaped molecules are
the basic building blocks,
and the order can be in in
terms of the orientation
(nematic discotics) or in the
form of columns. Nematic discotic
8
Structure property relationships
Phases of liquid crystals –
Discotic Liquid crystals
• Disc shaped molecules are
the basic building blocks,
and the order can be in in
terms of the orientation
(nematic discotics) or in the
form of columns. Nematic discotic
Columnar phase
• The columns can then pack
together to form a two
dimensional crystalline array.
Thermotropic
liquid crystals
phase forms as a function of temperature
Lyotropic
liquid crystals
Phase forms as a function of concentration
in a solvent
10
Structure property relationships
Phases of liquid crystals –
Lyotropic liquid crystals.
• Lyotropic phases occur for molecules dissolved in a solution
• Different phases occur with concentration
• Often the solvent is water and the molecules have an hydrophilic end and
an hydrophobic end (e.g. detergents with polar (hydrophilic) and non-polar
(hydrophobic) end groups).
• The lyotropic liquid crystals form many different phases, as with the
thermotropic liquid crystals, but depending on concentration as well as
temperature
Hexagonal phase
11
Liquid crystal templates
12
Structure property relationships
Phases of liquid crystals –
Lyotropic liquid crystals.
• The lamellar phases are found in cell membranes
• This allows a liquid environment to exist, so transporting material around, but
with a layer which controls the transport of material across the layer
• An example of the phase transition is from the lamellar liquid crystal phase to
a gel phase, sometimes an undesirable transition.
• This transition occurs at different temperatures and pressures depending on
the environment that the organism lives in and what is required
water water
C2H5 CN
• Cyano biphenyl, shown above was the first stable liquid crystal developed at
Hull University Chemistry Dept. – enabled the LCD industry to develop.
• Generally the rod shaped molecules can have the following structure:
n=1,2,3
X,Y CmH2m+1; CmH2m+1-O; CN etc
X Y
F F F
n Aromatic
CN
Aliphatic
CH2 CH2 CO N O
Hetrocyclic
CH CH O N O
CH CH N N 14
Chemical structure of liquid crystal molecules
C2H5 CN
• Cyano biphenyl, shown above was the first stable liquid crystal developed at
Hull University Chemistry Dept. – enabled the LCD industry to develop.
• Generally the rod shaped molecules can have the following structure:
n=1,2,3
X,Y CmH2m+1; CmH2m+1-O; CN etc
X Y
F F F
n Aromatic
CN
Aliphatic
CH2 CH2 N O
CO Hetrocyclic
CH CH N O
CH CH N N 15
Chemical structure of liquid crystal molecules
C2H5 CN
• Cyano biphenyl, shown above was the first stable liquid crystal developed at
Hull University Chemistry Dept. – enabled the LCD industry to develop.
• Generally the rod shaped molecules can have the following structure:
n=1,2,3
X,Y CmH2m+1; CmH2m+1-O; CN etc
X Y
F F F
n Aromatic
CN
Aliphatic
CH2 CH2 N O
CO Hetrocyclic
CH CH N O
CH CH N N 16
Chemical structure of liquid crystal molecules
C2H5 CN
• Cyano biphenyl, shown above was the first stable liquid crystal developed at
Hull University Chemistry Dept. – enabled the LCD industry to develop.
• Generally the rod shaped molecules can have the following structure:
n=1,2,3
X,Y CmH2m+1; CmH2m+1-O; CN etc
X Y
F F F
n Aromatic
CN
Aliphatic
CH2 CH2 N O
CO Hetrocyclic
CH CH N O
CH CH N N 17
Chemical structure of liquid crystal molecules
• Chirality is an important property of some of the molecules:
– A chiral molecule cannot be superimposed on its mirror image. The
carbon centre of the molecules below is the chiral centre. The
enantiomers are identical except for the way in which they are arranged
in space.
– Solutions or mixtures containing chiral molecules will rotate the plane of
polarisation of light travelling through: Optical activity.
– A racemic mixture has equal amounts of each enantiomer.
– Synthesis of chiral compounds must be carried out carefully to make sure
that a racemic mixture is not obtained.
H13C6 C6H13
H H
OH HO
H3C CH3
18
Chiral liquid crystals
• The chiral nematic (Cholesteric) liquid crystal phase is
a nematic phase, but the average direction of the
molecules rotates through the material.
19
Chemical structure of liquid crystal molecules
Splay, k11
Bend, k33
Twist, k22
23
Dielectric properties
• The electric permittivity of the liquid crystal is
anisotropic
• The permittivity is concerned with the polarisability of
the material and the response of a material to an
electric field.
• D=eoerE
24
Dielectric properties
• The electric permittivity of the liquid crystal is
anisotropic
• The permittivity is concerned with the polarisability of
the material and the response of a material to an
electric field.
• D=eoerE
The field will induce dipoles in
E the material, which will create a
field inside. P the polarisation.
+ - + -
+ -
+ - P D = eoE+P║ = eoe║E
+ -
+ -
+ -
25
Dielectric properties
• The electric permittivity of the liquid crystal is
anisotropic
• The permittivity is concerned with the polarisability of
the material and the response of a material to an
electric field.
Guard ring to
avoid the
A effect of
Capacitance fringing fields.
meter d
e oe A
C
d 27
Permittivity, dielectric constants.
Permittivity or dielectric constant, from
capacitance measurements
1 Q 2 1 Q 2d
W
2 C 2 e oe r A
29
Dielectric anisotropy and electric fields in a liquid
crystal.
E E
n=1,2,3
X,Y CmH2m+1; CmH2m+1-O; CN etc
X Y
F F F
n Aromatic
CN
Aliphatic
CH2 CH2 CO N O
Hetrocyclic
CH CH O N O
CH CH N N 31
Influence of chemical structure on permittivity
n=1,2,3
X,Y CmH2m+1; CmH2m+1-O; CN etc
X Y
F F F
n Aromatic
CN
Aliphatic
CH2 CH2 CO N O
Hetrocyclic
CH CH O N O
CH CH N N 32
Permittivity as a function of frequency
• As the frequency of the electric field is increased the permittivity
will change.
qc
qc 34
Refractive indices of liquid crystal
Refractive indices, from Abbé
refractometer measurements
CH CH CH CH CH2 CH2
36
Refractive indices of liquid crystal
• The birefringence is critical to the optical properties of the liquid
crystal and underlies many of the applications of liquid crystals.
• By reorienting the liquid crystal the effective birefringence will
change and so the optical properties will change
37
Birefringence
• Optically anisotropic materials have different optical properties depending on
the polarisation of the light travelling through the material.
• This is described by different refractive indices in the material.
• For a uniaxial material such as liquid crystals there are two values for the
refractive index.
38
Optical Indicatrix
ne
no
39
Optical Indicatrix
ne
no
40
Optical Indicatrix
ne
no
41
Optical Indicatrix
ne
nx
q
no
42
Optical Indicatrix
ne
nx
q
no 1
cos2 q sin 2 q 2
n x q
n2 2
o ne
43
Optical Indicatrix
nx q
no 1
cos2 q sin 2 q 2
n x q
n2 2
o ne
44
Optical Indicatrix
ne
nx
q
no 1
cos2 q sin 2 q 2
n x q
n2 2
o ne
45
Optical Indicatrix
The orientation of
the optical
ne
indicatrix may
change – this
occurs when liquid nx
crystals switch q
no
1
cos2 q sin 2 q 2
n x q
n2 2
o ne
46
Polarised light
l0 z
Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave,
the electric field, the magnetic field and x
the direction of propagation are all at right E
angles to each other.
H
The wave is time varying
frequency given by n,
speed given by c= nlo in a vacuum y
in a medium of refractive index n, the A full analysis of polarised light must include
wavelength is changed by llo/n. both the electric and magnetic components of
the light; this is particularly necessary when
considering reflected components
i.e. E E0 ˆie j (t kz ) ˆj je j (t kz )
The intensity of the light is E.E = E02, a constant, but the direction of E is
time varying and is rotating with angular frequency of = 2f. The light
is described as circularly polarised – it can be right or left circularly
polarised.
49
Elliptical polarisation
In a general case E0x E0y and has any value,
the light is elliptically polarised. The electric
vector E then rotates as a function of time and
the amplitude varies as well. Linear and circular
polarisations are special cases.
time
y
Ex component
E at t 0
x Ey component
E (t )
50
Optical phase through a birefringent layer
E x E0 x ˆie j (t k x z )
j (t k y z D )
E y E0 y ˆje
51
Viewing angle
• When light is incident from different directions, the effective
refractive index can change – so the change in polarisation will
be different for the different directions of the light.
• As a result the grey levels are not reproduced accurately and
colour distortion occurs, at the extreme reverse contrast can
occur.
n e, n o n x, n o
52
Viewing angle – calculation of reflected light
- bright state
Contrast Ratio (Bright / Dark) contour plot Contrast Ratio (Bright / Dark) area plot
(clipped to ~ 20:1) Max:66 (clipped to ~ 20:1) Max:66
Twist, k22
Splay, k11
Bend, k33 56
Numerical modelling of the director (n)
distribution
57
1
z [ mm]
0
0.5
1
1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
x [ mm]
Stable Vertical State Stable Hybrid Aligned State
58
Threshold voltage for switching
The competition between the elastic and electric energies, results in a
threshold voltage for switching
k
slope 33
Permittivity, measured from the
k11
capacitance
k11 2 e o DeVc2
Voltage (V) 59
Alignment
• The liquid crystal director must be fixed somewhere, and the best place is at
the surface of a substrate
• The director must be fixed so that the elastic forces restore the original
structure after the electric field has been removed.
• The director can be fixed parallel to the surface or perpendicular, or at an
angle.
• Alignment is achieved by rubbing a polymer surface, or by treating the
surface with a surfactant.
Energetically unfavourable – Energetically favourable – the The alkyl chains of the surfactant
because of the distortion in director field is undistorted interact with the long chains of
the director field the liquid crystal to give
alignment perpendicular to the
60
substrate
Structure of an LCD The polarisers are needed to modulate
the light intensity, when the liquid crystal
changes the polarisation state of the
light
The glass is used to give structure to
the display – spacers are used to
maintain the cell gap (typically 5mm)
The ITO (Indium Tin Oxide) is a
transparent conductor, to allow a
voltage to be applied across the liquid
crystal layer
An alignment layer is needed to fix the
liquid crystal at the surface, so that the
un-switched structure is obtained with
the voltage is removed.
• http://www.hylcd.com/images/color.gif
Colour filters are used to give Red,
Green and Blue pixels for colour
displays.
61
Twisted nematic (TN) LCD
S D 2 N 1D
2
Vns
N
http://sharp-world.com/sc/library/lcd_e/s2_4_3e.htm 64
Thin Film Transistors (TFTs) for LCDs
http://www.xbitlabs.com/articles/other/display/response-2_3.html
68
In-plane switching (IPS) LCDs
69
In-plane switching (IPS) LCDs
LC
71
Vertically Aligned Nematic
• Numerical modelling of the director pattern and the optical properties show the
switching of a VAN cell with a cross shaped hole in the electrode.
• Four domains result, giving very uniform viewing angle properties
• The off-axis birefringence of the uniform dark state is easily compensated with a
birefringent film with a negative birefringence, giving a very good dark state, hence a
good contrast ratio.
• Materials with a high negative dielectric anisotropy are more difficult to obtain and so
switching times can be slower than positive materials
• The birefringence may be lower for these materials and so thicker layers are needed,
again making the switching slower
72
Cholesteric liquid crystals
• Essentially the nematic phase, but with a chiral group which gives a twist to
the structure.
• The twist is often temperature dependant, but only if there is a SmA phase
below the nematic and then the pitch increases in going closer the the SmA
phase, i.e. as the temperature decreases
• The pitch of the twist can match the wavelength of light, l, in which case
selective reflection occurs across a band when l = nP, with n, the refractive
index, going from ne to no. (Sometimes called Bragg scattering)
• Only the circular polarisation matching the twist sense is selectively reflected
• In droplet form, encapsulated into a polymer the cholesteric can be used as a
thermometer
• In an aligned form it can be used as a circular polariser, or as the reflector for
a laser system.
73
Liquid crystals for laser systems and photonics
• Laser dye molecules can be added to the cholesteric liquid crystal and then optically
pumped and the liquid crystal structure forms the laser cavity.
• Changing the temperature slightly would then tune the wavelength of the laser
• Some cholesteric systems have been shown to have electrically tuned pitch, which
allows electrical tuning of the laser wavelength
• The cavity can be made very small, which has advantages in laser operation
• Improvements will be to synthesis liquid crystal laser dye materials, which would
allow very high concentrations of the dye and to find a method of electrically pumping
the laser
• Blue phases are a three dimensional twisted structure, which is very interesting as a
3D distributed Bragg system.
• Recent developments using dimers have allowed blue phases to exist over a wide
temperature range.
• These have potential as self assembled photonic band gap structures
• A defect formed in the 3D structure, or a line of defects give localised transmission of
light in the band gap and control of photon movement through the structure.
74
Diffractive displays
• Conventional LC displays rely on transmission/reflection or absorption of the
light
• This is inefficient since light is absorbed rather than redirected
• Diffraction offers a way of steering the light into the region where it is
required
• Requires coherent illumination (i.e. laser light) and very high resolution
structures (sub-wavelength) in the diffracting medium
• The Fourier transform of the image is obtained and this is displayed on a
Spatial Light Modulator (SLM) – or display!
• Diffraction from the Fourier transform reconstructs the original image
• Often image compression relies on taking the transform, so the processing
could be simplified, so reducing the data rates required to the display
• Only LCOS systems provide the resolution required
• Both binary Ferroelectric liquid crystal and nematic LC can be used.
• Intensity modulation of the diffraction pattern can be used, but phase
modulation is more efficient
75
Diffractive Display demonstrated at Cambridge
University
Using Binary FLC LCOS
76
Beam steering using LCOS
• A grating can be used to direct light into different
regions
• This can be used in telecom systems to reconfigure
light from an array of optical fibre outputs into an array
of optical fibre inputs
78
LCOS-based 3D Holographic Displays
Demonstration System
Stanley, M, Conway, P B, Coomber, S, Jones, C J, Scattergood, D C, Slinger C W, Bannister, B W, Brown, C V, Crossland W A, and Travis A R L,
"A novel electro-optic modulator system for the production of dynamic images from giga-pixel computer generated holograms",
Practical Holography XIV, Proceedings of SPIE Vol 3956, San Jose, 24 January 2000, pages 13 to 22 79
Bistable displays
• For portable displays the energy consumption is critical
• Bistability allows the display to be addressed and then it can be left in that state.
• The power can be removed once the display has been addressed, giving very low
power operation for displays which do not have rapidly varying information
• Applications are for e-books, supermarket shelf labels, some mobile phone
applications
80
Post Aligned Bistable Device (PABN)
3-D Modelling Window
Top: Homeotropic
2.6 – 3.0 µm
[1], [2] Sides: Periodic
0.6 µm
• Device under development at Hewlett-Packard.
Planar Tilted 82
Doping liquid crystals
• Adding anisotropic dyes to liquid crystals has been done for a long time for
simple displays.
• The alignment in the liquid crystal aligns the dye molecules which can then
be switched
• Absorption occurs only along one direction of the dye and so the light
absorption can be switched
• Other additives are being considered – carbon nano-tubes, very small
particles of ferroelectric crystal, biological molecules
• This could be to enhance the anisotropy of the liquid crystal properties or to
control the orientation of the dopant
• Control of the position of defects in the liquid crystal can be used to move
particles in the liquid crystal and so could be used to position very small
particles
85
Switching Between the Stable States
via defect formation along post.
Side view
Post
Post
Post
Top view