 Typical layout of an irrigation canal system

It is desirable that a
canal off taking from a
river should be able to
irrigate as much an
area as possible.
Along R-R’, there
would not be any
slope.

An alignment
along R-R’’ would
mean zero
command area for
the canal

Ridgelines of basin
Possible alignments of
the right and left bank
canals
If it is laid up to a ridge line between two
valleys, it would allow a larger command area
for the same canal.
 As far as possible, curves should be avoided in the alignment of
canals because the curves lead to disturbance of flow and a
tendency to silt on the inner bend and scour the toe of the outer
(concave) bend. However, if curves have to be provided; they should
be as gentle as possible. Further, the permissible minimum radius
of curvature for a channel curve is shorter for lined canals than
unlined ones and is shorter for small cross sections than for large
cross sections of canals.
 The alignment should be such that the cutting and filling of earth or
rock should be balanced, as far as possible.
 The alignment should be such that the canal crosses the natural
stream at its narrowest point in the vicinity.
In order to finalize the layout of canal network for an irrigation
project, the alignment of channels should be marked on topo-sheets,
until an optimum is reached. This alignment is then transferred to the
field by fixing marking posts along the centerline of the canal.
1. Concrete lining
• gives very satisfactory service, frequently high in their initial cost,
long life and minimum maintenance make them economical.
• best suited for main canals which carry large quantities of water at
high velocities a firm foundation is essential for avoiding any
possibility of cracking due to foundation settlement
• Expansive clay soils should be avoided and proper moisture and
density control of the sub grade soil should be maintained while
lining where the ground water table is likely to rise above the invert
level of the lining and cause undue uplift pressure, drains are laid
below the lining to release the water and relieve the pressure
• generally, a thickness of about 5 to 12 cm is generally adopted for
larger canals and stable side slopes are considered to be between
1.5H: 1V to 1.25H: 1V.
• Reinforcement to the extent of 0.1 to 0.4 percent of the area in
longitudinal direction and 0.1 to 0.2 percent of the area in the
transverse direction reduces width of the shrinkage cracks, thereby
reducing seepage.
2. Shotcrete lining

• Shotcrete, that is, cement mortar in the ratio of 1

cement to 4 sand proportions through a pump-pipe-
nozzle system on the surface of the channel.
• Wire mesh reinforcement is generally, though not
necessarily, is clamped to the channel surface (as for a
rocky excavation) before applying shotcrete.
• Equipment units used for shotcrete construction are
relatively small and easily moved.
• convenient for lining small sections, for repair of old
linings, and for placing linings around curves or
structures.
• Shotcrete linings are generally laid in a thickness of
about 3.5cm
3. Brick or burnt clay tile lining precast concrete tile lining
• This type of lining is popular because of certain advantages
like non-requirement of skilled mason or rigid quality
control.
• it is more labour intensive, it generates employment
potential.
• Brick tiles can be plastered to increase the carrying capacity
of canal with same section and help in increasing the life
span of the lining
• a layer of tiles is laid over a layer of brick masonry. The top
layer is generally laid in 1:3 cement mortal over 15mm thick
layer of plaster in 1:3 cement plaster.
• The size of tiles is generally restricted to 30mm x 150mm x
53m. This type of lining is stable even if there is settlement
of foundation, since the mortar joint between bricks or tiles
provides for numerous cracks so fine that seepage is
insignificant.
4. Boulder Lining
• Also called dry stone lining or stone pitching, is
used for lining the earthen canal cross section, by
proper placement and packing of stones, either after
laying a filter layer over the soil surface or without
any such filter, depending upon the site
requirement.
• To reduce the resistance to flow, a 20 to 25mm
thick cement plaster is provided as a finishing
surface. Stones are generally placed on leveled sub-
grade, and hand packed.
• This type of lining is of course suitable where stones
of required specification are available in abundance
locally.
Low density
polyethylene lining

Hot bitumen/
Bituminous felt lining
 The different types of earth linings that are
used in canals include the following:
 Stabilized earth linings: Here, the sub-grade is stabilized using either
clay for granular sub-grade or by adding chemicals that compact the
soil.
 Loose earth blankets: Fine grained soil is laid on the sub-grade and
evenly spread. However, this type of lining is prone to erosion, and
requires a flatter side slopes of canal.
 Compacted earth linings: Here the graded soil containing about 15
percent clay is spread over the sub-grade and compacted.
 Buried bentonite membranes: Bentonite is a special type of clay soil,
found naturally, which swell considerably when wetted. Buried
bentonite linings for canals are constructed by spreading soil-
bentonite mixtures over the sub-grade and covering it with gravel or
compacted earth.
 Soil-cement lining: Here, cement and sandy soil are mixed and then
compacted at optimum moisture content or cement and soil is machine
mixed with water and then laid.
 Water logging
 Ill-aeration of plants
 Normal cultivation operations, such as tilling, ploughing, etc.
cannot be easily carried out in wet soils. In extreme cases, the
free water may rise above the ground level making
agricultural operations impossible.
 Certain water loving plants like grasses, weeds, etc. grow
profusely and luxuriantly in water-logged lands, thus
affecting and interfering with the growth of the crops.
 Water logging leads to a condition called salinity, which is
caused when the capillary fringe of the elevated water table
rises within the root zone of plants. Since the roots of the
plants continuously draw water from this zone, there is a
steady upward movement of water which causes rise of salts,
especially alkali salts, to come up to the ground surface.
1. Select a suitable slope for the channel banks. These should be
nearly equal to the angle of repose of the natural soil in the
subgrade so that no earth pressure is exerted from behind on the
lining.

2. Decide on the freeboard, which is the depth allowance by which

the banks are raised above the full supply level (FSL) of a canal. For
channels of different discharge carrying capacities, the values
recommended for freeboard are given in the following table:
3. Berms or horizontal strips of land provided at canal banks in
deep cutting, have to be incorporated in the section. The berms
serve as a road for inspection vehicles and also help to absorb any
soil or rock that may drop from the cut-face of soil or rock of the
excavations. Berm width may be kept at least 2m. If vehicles are
required to move, then a width of at least 5m may be provided.
4. For canal sections in filling, banks on either side have to be
provided with sufficient top width for movement of men or
vehicles.
5. Assume a safe limiting velocity of flow, depending on the type of
lining, as given below:
• Cement concrete lining: 2.7 m/s
• Brick tile lining or burnt tile lining: 1.8 m/s
• Boulder lining: 1.5 m/s

6. Assume the appropriate values of flow friction coefficients

7. The longitudinal slope (S) of the canal may vary from reach to
reach, depending upon the alignment. The slope of each reach has
to be evaluated from the alignment of the canal drawn on the map
of the region.

8. For the given discharge Q, permissible velocity V, longitudinal

slope S, given side slope , and Manning’s roughness coefficient, n,
find out the cross section parameters of the canal.

• Continuity equation: Q = A * V
• Dynamic equation: V = 1/n A R 2/3 S 1/2
A canal obtains
its share of
water from the
pool behind a
barrage
through a
structure
called the
canal head
regulator.
Canal structures may be described as follows:
1. Drops and falls - to lower the water level of the canal.

Rapid Fall Notch Fall

Vertical
Drop Fall
2. Cross regulators to head up 3. Distributary head regulator to
water in the parent channel to control the amount of water flowing
divert some of it through an off in to off take channel.
take channel, like a distributary.
Distributary Head
Regulator

Parent Canal
Cross Regulator

Silt Vanes
 Groyne Curves/
Curved Wings

Skimming
Platforms
4. Escapes, to allow release of excess water from the canal system.

Weir or Surface
Escapes

Sluice or Surplus
Escapes
Canal structures may be described as
follows:
1. Drops and falls to lower the water
level of the canal
2. Cross regulators to head up water in
the parent channel to divert some of it
through an off take channel, like a
distributary.
3. Distributary head regulator to
control the amount of water flowing in
to off take
channel.
4. Escapes, to allow release of excess
water from the canal system.