GROUP 3 POST LABORATORY REPORT

KINGDOM FUNGI
ABOUT KINGDOM FUNGI
Organisms such as mushrooms, yeasts, molds, rusts, smuts, puffballs, truffles, morels, and molds
are just one of the 144,000 known species of organisms that belong to the kingdom fungi.
There are many fungus-like organisms such as slime molds and oomycetes that belong to the
Kingdom Chromista but are being thought to belong to kingdom fungi and are often called
fungi. Fungi are of both great medical and environmental importance, and they live everywhere;
in air, in water, on land, in soil, and others form parasitic or symbiotic relationship with either
plants or animals.
ABOUT KINGDOM FUNGI
Fungi are heterotrophic type of organisms, and how a great diversity in morphology and
habitat. Fungi are eukaryotic organisms, and are historically once included in the plant kingdom,
however, due to their lack of chlorophyll and having unique structural and physiological
features, they have been separated from plants. By their principal modes of vegetative growth
and nutrient intake, fungi are clearly distinguished from all other living organisms, including
animals.
ABOUT KINGDOM FUNGI
The cell wall of fungi are mostly made up of carbohydrate chitin, while the cell wall in plants is
made of cellulose. The 'fruit' body of fungus is only seen, while the living body of the fungus is
a mycelium, it is made of tiny filaments called hyphae. Nutrition in fungi is by absorbing
nutrients from the organic material in which they live. Fungi do not have stomachs, they digest
their food before it pass through the cell wall into the hyphae. The hyphae secrets enzymes and
acids that break down the organic material into simple compounds. Lastly, fungi grow from the
tips of filaments (hyphae) that make up the bodies of the organisms (mycelia), and they digest
organic matter externally before absorbing it into their mycelia.
IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

RECYCLING

MYCORRHIZA AND PLANT GROWTH

FOOD

MEDICINES

BIOCONTROL
IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

CROP DISEASES

ANIMAL DISEASE

FOOD SPOILAGE
Characteristics
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms

They are non-vascular organisms

They reproduce by means of spores

Depending on the species and conditions both sexual and asexual

spores may be produced
Characteristics
Typically non-motile

Exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of

generation

The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular or

composed of microscopic threads called hyphae
Characteristics
The structure of cell wall is similar to plants but
chemically the fungi cell wall are composed of chitin

Fungi are heterotrophic organisms

They digest the food first and then ingest the food, to
accomplish this the fungi produce exoenzymes
Characteristics
Fungi store their food as starch

Biosynthesis of chitin occurs in fungi

The nuclei of the fungi is very small

Nutrition in fungi - they are saprophytes, or parasites

or symbionts
Characteristics
Reproduction in fungi is both by sexual and asexual
means. Sexual state is referred to as teleomorph,
asexual state is referred to as anamorph
KINGDOM FUNGI
Prepared slides of the following:

I. Yeast
II. Aspergillus
III. Fungi Mucor
IV. Rhizopus zygospore
V. Rhizopus sporangia
VI. Puccinia graminis
VII. Cytopus
Yeast
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Ascomycota or Basidiomycota
Class: Saccharomycetes
Order: Saccharomycetales
Family: Saccharomycetaceae
Genus:

 They are single celled fungi

 Size: generally larger than most bacteria; (1-5) um
wide and (5-30) um in length
 Shape: cell is egg-shaped, some are elongated or
spherical
 Size and shape varies among species
Yeast
 Yeast cell is lacks flagella and other organ of
locomotion.
 Cell wall: composed of thin chitinous cell wall
 Protoplasm is surrounded by cell membrane which
contains all the usual cell organlles
 Yeasts generally reproduce by Asexual method
such as Budding or fission,
 Yeasts lacks sex organs ( anthridium and
oogonium)
 Sexual reproduction in yeast is highly variable
Yeast

Yeast Somatic Structure

Yeast
Vegetative Reproduction: Asexual Reproduction
 Multiplies by binary fission or by budding.
 Budding yeasts are more common
 The protoplast of the mother cell covered by a thin
membrane bulges out in the form of a bud which ultimately
develop into a daughter cell.
 The nucleus of the mother cell divides and then one of the
two nuclei pass into the enlarging bud.
 Daughter cell becomes separated from the mother cell by a
septa and the process may be repeated indefinitely.
Yeast
 The daughter cell may also start producing buds
before being separated from mother cell giving rise to
chains of yeast cells.
 The branched or unbranched chains of cells will form
pseudomycelium.

Vegetative Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction

 Sexual reproduction is highly variable in yeasts
 Three different pattern of life cycle found in different genus
i. Haplodiplobiontic life cycle
ii. Haplobiontic life cycle
iii. Diplobiontic life cycle
Yeast

Yeast Asexual Reproduction

Yeast
Haplodiplobiontic life cycle
 The haploid and diploid phases are equally developed
showing distinct alternation of generations.
 Occurs in baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisae).
 During the life cycle, the two haploid cells unite to form a
diploid (2x) cell
 The diploid cells multiply by budding and produce large
number of diploid cells, each behaving as an ascus.
 nucleus divides meiotically to produce four haploid nuclei-
each organizes into an ascospore
 Ascospores on liberation from ascus multiply by budding to
produce haploid yeast cells
Yeast
Haplobiontic life cycle
 Represented by Schizosaccharomyces octosporus, two
haploid somatic cells behave as gametes
 Two adjacent cells of similar size put out short beak-like
protuberances, which come into contact and fuse together to
form a passage called as conjugation tube.
 The nuclei from both the cells fuse together to form a diploid
ascus.
 Nucleus undergoes three successive divisions- first is meiotic.
 Eight haploid ascospores are formed
 The ascospores are liberated by the rupture of the ascus wall
Yeast
Diplobiontic life cycle
 Diploid cells are vegetative cells that multiply extensively
through budding, thus, produces diploid cells
 Diploid somatic cells enlarge and function as asci
 Diploid nucleus, after some time, divides meiotically to
produce four haploid nuclei
 The four nuclei do not come out of the ascus to form
ascospores, instead fuse in pairs to produce two diploid
cells.
 Each diploid cell germinates by producing a germ tube
which pushes out through the ascus wall and acts as a
sprout mycelium which buds off several diploid yeast cells.
Yeast

Yeast cell LPO (from the internet) Yeast cell HPO (from the internet)
Aspergillus
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Ascomycota
Order: Eurotiales
Family: Trichocomaceae
Genus: Aspergillus

 Consists of about 300 identified species of mold

(mold).
 Their growth is largely dependent by the availability of
water, thus, can be found in a variety of environments
 Their growth rate is largely dependent with the
temperature range in the environment
 If all conditions are ideal, they can tolerate extreme
conditions
Aspergillus
• Given that a majority reproduce asexually, they are often
described as conidial fungi- fungi that reproduce
asexually through the production of spores from the
fungi hyphae. The spore produced is referred to as
conidium*

• Aspergillus spores are common components of aerosols

where they drift on air currents, dispersing themselves
both short and long distances depending on
environmental conditions*
• Saprophytes- they obtain their nutrition from dead and
decaying matter
• Can also be pathogenic to human beings and animals
with some also affecting and damaging plants.
Aspergillus
• They are heterotrophs- because they lack chlorophyll and
is unable to produce their own food
• Incapable of absorbing organic matter in their
surroundings
• Thus, they release different types of enzymes such as
amylase capable of breaking down these materials into
simpler compounds that can be absorbed through the
vegetative hyphae*
• Since their discovery in the 1720s, they have become
increasingly important in human health, agriculture as
well as in biological sciences.
Aspergillus
Mucor
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Zygomycota
Order: Mucorales
Family: Mucoraceae
Genus: Mucor

 Colonies are fast growing

 Resembles cotton to fluffy, white to yellow or white
to gray; becomes dark over time
 The reverse is light-colored to white
 Sporangiophores are erect, simple or branched,
forming large (60-300 µm in diameter)
 Hyphae are wide, like other Zygomycetes, usually
approximately 6-15μ.
Mucor
 Terminal, globose to spherical, multispored
sporangia
 without apophyses and with well-developed
subtending columellae
 A conspicuous collarette (remnants of the
sporangial wall) is usually visible at the base of the
columella after sporangiospore dispersal
 Sporangiospores are hyaline, grey or brownish,
globose to ellipsoidal, and smooth-walled or finely
ornamented
 Chlamydospores and zygospores may be present,
and no rhizoids are formed
Mucor
Rhizopus
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Zygomycota
Class: Zygomycetes
Order: Mucorales
Family: Mucoraceae
Genus: Rhizopus

Somatic Structure:
 occurs as fleecy white, cotton-like mycelium
 differs from Mucor in having two kinds of hyphae-long,
stout horizontally creeping aerial hyphae called stolons
and rhizoids which penetrate into the substratum.
 The aerial portion of the mycelium appears tobe
differentiated into long ‘internodes’ and ‘nodes’.
Rhizopus
 Branching is restricted to the ‘nodes’ only. The ‘nodes’
produce rhizoids below and sporangiophores above.

Microscopic Structure:
 The mycelium is aseptate and multinucleate (coenocytic).
 Septa are formed only when reproductive structures are
developed.
 The cell wall is composed of chitin (fungal cellulose).
 The cytoplasm is granular and contains numerous vacuoles
of small sizes.
 Nuclei are in very large number and are distributed all over
the cytoplasm. The food reserve is in the form of glycogen
and oil droplets
Rhizopus
Vegetative Reproduction:
• Occurs by Fragmentation*

Asexual Reproduction:
 By means of Sporangiospores- When conditions are
favorable, the fungus multiplies rapidly by means of non-
flagellate spores.
 The spores are produced within sporangia which are borne
at the tips of slender ventrally growing (negatively
geotropic) sporangiophores. They develop from “nodes” of
the mycelium in clusters.
 The sporangiophores are typically unbranched with a single
terminal sporangium
Rhizopus
Sexual Reproduction:
• Occurs by Germantia formation
• When compatible mycelia (plus and minus in heterothallic
species) are close together they secrete a diffusible sex
hormone, thus, results in the formation of special hyphae
called zygophores from both of them.
• Another diffusible metabolite is secreted which causes the
two zygophores of the opposite strains bend towards each
other. When the zygophores come in direct contact both of
them produce a copulating branch called progametangia.
• When they grow towards each other the zygophores are
pushed apart and soon there is flow of cytoplasm and
nuclei into the progametangia from the adjacent hyphae.
Rhizopus
Sexual Reproduction:
• The tips of the progametangia enlarge due to accumulation
of cytoplasm and nuclei. A transverse septum is then laid
down just behind the swollen tip to separate a terminal
gametangium from the rest of the hypha which is now
termed suspensor.
• When two gametes come in direct contact, the walls of the
gametangia and the walls of the two gametes dissolve
• The gametes are initially multinucleate- all nuclei except
one in each one of them degenerate
Rhizopus
Sexual Reproduction:
• At the time of germination the two nuclei fuse to form a
diploid nucleus, which undergoes reduction division to
form 4 haploid nuclei.
• Out of the 4 nuclei 3 degenerate and the remaining one
gives rise to large number of haploid nuclei by repeated
mitotic divisions. The zygospore wall ruptures and the
nuclei migrate into the zygosporangium to form spores.
Rhizopus

Rhizopus zygospore (from the Rhizopus sporangia (from the

internet) internet)
Rhizopus

Rhizopus somatic structure Rhizopus microscopic structure

Rhizopus

Rhizopus asexual
reproduction
Rhizopus

Rhizopus sexual reproduction

Puccinia
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Eumycota
Class: Teliomycetes
Order: Uredinales
Family: Pucciniaceae
Genus: Puccinia
Species: graminis

 Puccinia species are internal obligate parasites

 Puccinia graminis- causes black rust or stem rust.
 Puccinia striiformis- causes yellow rust or stripe
rust.
 Puccinia recondite- causes brown rust or leaf rust.
Puccinia
 Most common rust of cereals is Puccinia graminis
 It is confined to stem and leaf sheaths of wheat
plants
 shows physiological specialization or biological
specialization (a specific host is affected by a
specific pathogen)
 It is heteroceious and macrocyclic fungus
 Dikaryophase occurs in primary host (wheat) and
haplophase occurs in alternate host (Berberis
vulgaris)*
Puccinia
5 types of spores are produced in two hosts in definite
sequence
 Uredospores (on primary host or wheat)
 Teleutospores (on primary host or wheat)
 Basidiospores (on straw or ground soil)
 Pycnidiospore or spermatia (on alternate host,
barberry)
 Aeciospores (on alternate host, barberry)
Puccinia graminis
Cystopus
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Eumycophyta
Class: Phycomycetes
Order: Pernosporales
Family: Albuginaceae
Genus: Albugo or Cystopus

Cytopus is a genus of parasitic fungi, belonging to the

family Peronosporeae, and characterized by the
conidia produced in chains on very short
coniodiophores, forming compact sori upon the
supporting leaf.
Cystopus
Asexual Reproduction:
 takes place by conidia or conidiosporangia. They develop
on conidiophore or conidiosporan- giophore
 Mycelium below the epidermis gives off many erect, short,
unbranched, club-shaped hyphae called conidiophores.
 Conidiophores lie parallel to one another and perpendicular
to the surface of the host, and form a palisade-like layer.
 On the thin-walled apical end of the thick-walled
conidiophore are present four to six or more spherical,
smooth and hyaline bodies called conidia
 Conidia are arranged in basipetal succession on the
conidiophore, i.e., youngest at the base and oldest at the
top
Cystopus
Asexual Reproduction:
 In between two conidia is present a pad or disc of
gelatinous material called mucilaginous disc or disjunctor.
 Each conidium and conidiophore is a multinucleate
structure.
 In the later stages, the epidermis of the host gets ruptured
and conidia disseminate. They germinate either directly by
forming a germ tube or form biflagellate zoospores.
Cystopus
Sexual Reproduction:
 Sexual reproduction is oogamous and the two sex organs
are antheridium and oogonium
 Sex organs generally develop in stem
 Two sex organs develop near each other but on different
male and female hyphae
 Antheridium develops in close contact with the oogonium
at the side
 Oogonium is globular and multinucleate, and contains a
large amount of food material. It bears a septum at the
base.
Cystopus
Sexual Reproduction:
 Mature oogonium in C. candidus remains divided into
central uninucleate dense ooplasm and peripheral,
multinucleate periplasm.
 Antheridium is elongated, club-shaped and multinucleate
structure having a septum at its base.
 The wall between antheridium and oogonium dissolves at
the place of their contact, and a tube is formed by
antheridium. This is called fertilization tube.
 Fertilization tube penetrates into periplasm and ooplasm,
and through this tube the male nucleus comes in contact
with the female nucleus to form the diploid oospore
Cystopus
Sexual Reproduction:
 Oospore is a globular body and remains surrounded by
outer thick and sometimes spiny exosporium, and inner
thin and smooth endosporium. Sometimes, a third middle
layer is also present.
 Diploid oospore divides first meiotically and then ordinarily
into many biflagellate, reniform and haploid zoospores or
zoomeiospores
 Zoospores, on withdrawing their flagella, germinate and
form new mycelial hyphae on the host
GUIDE QUESTIONS
What are ascogonia and
antheridial? In what division
are these structures formed?

What are the three phases in What is the trichogyne?

the sexual life cycle of a What is its function? From
fungi? Briefly describe what which gametangium does it
happens in each phase. grow?
GUIDE QUESTIONS
How are the edible
mushrooms distinguished
from the poisonous ones?

Differentiate the Polyporales Illustrate how basidiospores

from the Agaricales. are formed.
1. What are the three phases in
the sexual life cycle of a fungi?
Briefly describe what happens
in each phase.

The three phases in the exual life cycle of a fungus are called
Plasmogamy, Karyogamy, and Meiosis. During plasmogamy,
the cytoplasm of two parent cells fuses together, bringing
two haploid nuclei close together in the same cell. In
karyogamy, the two nuclei fuse together to form a diploid
nucleus. Meiosis then restores the haploid phase when
occurs in fruiting bodies of fungi.
1. What are the three phases in
the sexual life cycle of a fungi?
Briefly describe what happens
in each phase.

Plasmogamy occurs when two haploid hyphae of

compatible mating type fuse. Karyogamy usually occurs
immediately after plasmogamy but not in other fungi; it is
delayed.
2. What are
ascogonia and
antheridial? In what Ascogonia and antheridial are the sex organs of the fungi.
division are these Atheridium is a haploid structure producing and containing
structures formed? male gametes. Asoganium is the female sex organ in
ascomycetores fungi from which asci are produced. Both
organs develop at the start of sexual reproduction.
3. What is trichogyne?
What is its function? From
which gametangium does
it grow?
Trichogynes are filamentous outgrowth of the ascogonium.
It fascilitates the transfer of the nuclei from the ascoganium
to the antheridium.
4. Differentiate
Polyporales from the
Agaricales.
Both being to the kingdom Fungi, in the class
Agaricomycetes. Polyporales are usually found in
decaying wood or the ground. It is a large order of
pore fungi. Some are edible and others cause
diseases of trees. Polyporales have conspicuous
fruiting bodies. They are sometimes mushroom-like
and the spore-bearing layer is either tube-shaped,
gill-liked, rough, smooth or convulated.
4. Differentiate
Polyporales from the
Agaricales.
Agaricales are classified based on their gills present.
The gills are thin sheets of spore- bearing cells ad
have mushroom- shaped fruiting body. The
classification is based on generic relatedness, they
may or may not have gills or mushroom shaped.
 5. How are the edible mushrooms distinguished
from the poisonous ones?

Poisonous mushrooms are those that can cause complication in health if ingested. These mushrooms
have a variety of mycotoxins, which makes them poisonous. Parasitic fungus, which are
heterotrophic, cannot produce organic substances from inorganic substances. Edible mushrooms, on
the other hand, will not give any health issues when consumed. These mushrooms are the “forest
flesh” because of its high caloric value. These are good source of vitamins like thiamine, riboflavin,
niasin, biotin, and vitamin C.
 5. How are the edible mushrooms distinguished
from the poisonous ones?

Edible mushrooms can be distinguished from poisonous mushrooms because it can be found in
lawns or open fields, commonly have fruity smell, and their cap stretches from the stems as they
grow and develop a ring called annulus.
6. Illustrate how basidiospores
are formed.
 REFERENCES
• Ahmadjian, V., Moore, D., & Alexopoulos, C. (2018,
November 19). Fungus: Life form. Retrieved November
26, 2018, from
https://www.britannica.com/science/fungus
• Kingdom Fungi. (2018). Retrieved November 26, 2018,
from TutorVista.com:
https://biology.tutorvista.com/organism/kingdom-
fungi.html
• The Importance of Fungi. (n.d.). Retrieved November 26,
2018, from countryside.info.uk:
http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/fungi/importce.htm
 REFERENCES
• Anderson, H. (2018). Aspergillus Fungi: Definition,
Characteristics, Types and Morphology. Retrieved
November 28, 2018, from MicroscopeMaster:
https://www.microscopemaster.com/aspergillus.html
• Bokulich, N. A., & Bamforth, C. W. (Eds.). (n.d.). Brewing
Microbiology: Current Research, Omics and Microbial
Ecology. Retrieved November 28, 2018, from Caister
Academic Press:
https://www.highveld.com/microbiology/aspergillus.htm
l
 REFERENCES
 Chapter 4: Kingdom Fungi. (n.d.). Retrieved November
29, 2018, from studyinnovations.com:
https://www.studyinnovations.com/wp-
content/uploads/2017/09/Ch_04-KINGDOM-FUNGI.pdf

 Karki, G. (2017, November 18). Yeast: morphology and

life cycle. Retrieved November 30, 2018, from Online
Biology Notes:
http://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/yeast-morphology-
life-cycle/

 McDonald, W. (2003, April 30). Zygomycetes. Retrieved

November 30, 2018, from labmed.ucsf.edu:
http://labmed.ucsf.edu/education/residency/fung_morp
h/fungal_site/zygompage.html
 REFERENCES
 Mucor. (2016, December 15). Retrieved November 30,
2018, from Mycology Online:
https://mycology.adelaide.edu.au/descriptions/zygomyc
etes/mucor/
 Sinha, A. (n.d.). Reproductive structure of Albugo.
Retrieved December 1, 2018, from
biologydiscussion.com:
http://www.biologydiscussion.com/fungi/reproductive-
structure-of-albugo-with-diagram/54233