► Hand Tools in Illustration

► Equipment in Illustration
 body proportions are often used to relate two or
more measurements based on the body.
 A cubit, for instance, is supposed to be six palms.

 120cm (47inch)

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  An average person is
generally 7-and-a-half heads
tall (including the head).
 An ideal figure, used when
aiming for an impression of
nobility or grace, is drawn at
8 heads tall.
 A heroic figure, used in the
heroic for the depiction of
gods and superheroes, is
eight-and-a-half heads tall.
Most of the additional length
comes from a bigger chest
and longer legs.
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 is a drawing made by the Italian polymath Leonardo
da Vinci around 1490.
 It is accompanied by notes based on the work of the
Roman architect Vitruvius.
 The drawing, which is in ink on paper, depicts a man
in two superimposed positions with his arms and legs
apart and inscribed in a circle and square.
 Vitruvius determined that the ideal body should be
eight heads high. Leonardo's drawing is traditionally
named in honor of the architect.

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 For the human body is so designed by nature that the
face, from the chin to the top of the forehead and
the lowest roots of the hair, is a tenth part of the
whole height;
 the open hand from the wrist to the tip of the middle
finger is just the same;
 the head from the chin to the crown is an eighth, and
with the neck and shoulder from the top of the breast
to the lowest roots of the hair is a sixth;
 from the middle of the breast to the summit of the
crown is a fourth.

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 If we take the height of the face itself, the distance
from the bottom of the chin to the under side of the
nostrils is one third of it;
 the nose from the under side of the nostrils to a line
between the eyebrows is the same;
 from there to the lowest roots of the hair is also a third,
comprising the forehead. The length of the foot is one
sixth of the height of the body;
 of the forearm, one fourth; and the breadth of the
breast is also one fourth.

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 Then again, in the human body the central point is
naturally the navel.
 For if a man be placed flat on his back, with his hands
and feet extended, and a pair of compasses centred
at his navel, the fingers and toes of his two hands and
feet will touch the circumference of a circle
described therefrom.
 And just as the human body yields a circular outline,
so too a square figure may be found from it.

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 For if we measure the distance from the soles of the
feet to the top of the head, and then apply that
measure to the outstretched arms, the breadth will be
found to be the same as the height, as in the case of
plane surfaces which are perfectly square.

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 Leonardo's drawing combines a careful reading of the
ancient text with his own observation of actual human
bodies.
 In drawing the circle and square he observes that the
square cannot have the same centre as the circle, but is
centered at the groin.
 This adjustment is the innovative part of Leonardo's
drawing and what distinguishes it from earlier illustrations.
 He also departs from Vitruvius by drawing the arms raised
to a position in which the fingertips are level with the top of
the head, rather than Vitruvius's much lower angle, in
which the arms form lines passing through the navel.

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 Leonardo's drawing combines a careful reading of the
ancient text with his own observation of actual human
bodies.
 In drawing the circle and square he observes that the
square cannot have the same centre as the circle, but is
centered at the groin.
 This adjustment is the innovative part of Leonardo's
drawing and what distinguishes it from earlier illustrations.
 He also departs from Vitruvius by drawing the arms raised
to a position in which the fingertips are level with the top of
the head, rather than Vitruvius's much lower angle, in
which the arms form lines passing through the navel.

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 Vetruvio, architect, puts in his work on architecture
that the measurements of man are in nature
distributed in this manner:
 that is a palm is four fingers, a foot is four palms, a
cubit is six palms, four cubits make a man, a pace is
four cubits, a man is 24 palms and these
measurements are in his buildings.

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 If you open your legs enough that your head is
lowered by one-fourteenth of your height and raise
your hands enough that your extended fingers touch
the line of the top of your head, know that the centre
of the extended limbs will be the navel, and the
space between the legs will be an equilateral
triangle.

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 The length of the outspread arms is equal to the
height of a man;
 from the hairline to the bottom of the chin is one-
tenth of the height of a man;
 from below the chin to the top of the head is one-
eighth of the height of a man;
 from above the chest to the top of the head is one-
sixth of the height of a man;
 from above the chest to the hairline is one-seventh of
the height of a man.

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 The maximum width of the shoulders is a quarter of
the height of a man;
 from the breasts to the top of the head is a quarter of
the height of a man;
 the distance from the elbow to the tip of the hand is
a quarter of the height of a man;
 the distance from the elbow to the armpit is one-
eighth of the height of a man;
 the length of the hand is one-tenth of the height of a
man; the root of the penis is at half the height of a
man

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 ; the foot is one-seventh of the height of a man; from
below the foot to below the knee is a quarter of the
height of a man;
 from below the knee to the root of the penis is a
quarter of the height of a man;
 the distances from below the chin to the nose and
the eyebrows and the hairline are equal to the ears
and to one-third of the face.

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