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Principles of Electronic
Communication Systems

Fourth Edition

Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.

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Chapter 13

Transmission Lines

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Topics Covered in Chapter 13

 13-1: Transmission-Line Basics
 13-2: Standing Waves
 13-3: Transmission Lines as Circuit Elements
 13-4: The Smith Chart

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Topics Covered in Chapter 13

13-1: Transmission-Line Basics
a. Types of Transmission Lines
b. Balanced Versus Unbalanced Lines
c. Wavelength of Cables
d. Connectors
e. Characteristic Impedance
f. Time Delay
g. Transmission Line Specifications

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Transmission lines
 in communications, carry telephone signals, computer
data in LANs, TV signals in cable TV systems, and
signals from a transmitter to an antenna or from an
antenna to a receiver.
 electrical characteristics are critical & must be matched
to the equipment for successful communication to take
place.
 Transmission lines are also circuits.
 High frequency: resonant circuits & reactive components
 VHF, UHF & Microwave: Tuned circuits & filters

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Two primary requirements:
1. The line should introduce minimum attenuation to the
signal.
2. The line should not radiate any of the signal as radio
energy.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-1: Common types of transmission lines. (a) Open-wire line. (b) Open-wire
line called twin lead. (c) Coaxial cable (d) Twisted-pair cable.
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Types of Transmission Lines
Parallel-wire line
 made of two parallel conductors separated by a space
of ½ inch to several inches.
 uses insulating spacers to keep the wires separated.
 300-Ω twin-lead, varation of parallel-wire line, where the
spacing between the wires is maintained by continuous
plastic insulator.
 rarely used today.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Types of Transmission Lines
Coaxial Cable
 most widely used type of transmission line
 consists of a solid center conductor surrounded by a
dielectric material, usually a plastic insulator (Teflon)
 second conducting shield made of fine wires covers the
insulator, and an outer plastic sheath insulates the braid
 sizes from ¼ inch to several inches in diameter

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Coaxial Cable

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Types of Transmission Lines
Twisted-Pair Cable
 uses two insulated solid copper wires covered with
insulation and loosely twisted together.
 was originally used in telephone wiring still used today.
 also used for security system wiring of sensors
 one of the most widely used types of wiring in LANs.
 generally known as Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable
 Characteristics: size of wire, type of insulation, and
tightness of the twist (twists per inch)
 Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable w/ overall braid shield
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

STP (Shielded twisted-pair)
 since STP cabling works by attracting electromagnetic
interference and neutralizing it with a grounded cable,
problems can arise if and when that cable is improperly
grounded.
 protects against electromagnetic interference and
allows for a faster transmission of data.
 also bigger and more sensitive to work with than UTP
cable.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

UTP (Unshielded twisted-pair)
 no foil shield and relies on the way the pairs inside the
cabling is twisted to cancel electromagnetic
interference.
 more susceptible to electromagnetic interference in
industrial settings, it is considered the better choice for
office LANS and similar network cabling systems.
 smaller than STP cables, easier to install and a lot more
cost-effective. And, they can transmit data just as fast
as shielded twisted pair cabling.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Balanced Versus Unbalanced Lines
Balanced line
 is one in which neither wire is connected to ground.
(referenced to the ground)
 same current flows in each wire with respect to ground,
although the direction of current in one wire is 180° out
of phase with the current in the other wire.
 E.g: Twisted pair and Open-wire line
 offer significant protection from noise pickup & crosstalk
 Common-mode rejection ratio, and noise reduction can
be as great as -60 to -70 dB.
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Balanced Versus Unbalanced Lines
CMRR
-40 dB CMRR very poor noise rejection
-50 dB CMRR poor noise rejection
-60 dB CMRR average noise rejection
-70 dB CMRR good noise rejection
-80 dB CMRR very good noise rejection
-90 dB CMRR excellent noise rejection
-100 dB CMRR world class noise rejection

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Balanced Versus Unbalanced Lines
Unbalanced line
 one conductor is connected to ground.
 E.g: Shielded-twisted pair and Coaxial cable
 provide significant but not complete protection from
noise pickup or cross talk.
 Unshielded lines may pick up signals and cross talk and
can even radiate energy, resulting in an undesirable
loss of signal.
 Balun, from “balanced-unbalanced”, a device used to
convert from balanced to unbalanced lines & vice versa.
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-2: (a) Balanced line. (b) Unbalanced line.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Wavelength of Cables
 Transline: 60-Hz power line, audio output of stereo
receivers to stereo speakers (carrier of AC voltage)
 Low frequency: imp. Characteristic is Resistive loss
 Conductor size, which determines current-carrying
capability and voltage drop over long distances
 Electrical length of conductors is typically short
compared to 1 wavelength of the frequency they carry.
 A pair of current-carrying conductors is not considered
to be a transmission line unless it is at least 0.1λ long at
the signal frequency.
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Wavelength of Cables
 RF energy: not simply resistive conductors but are
complex equivalents of inductors, capacitors, and
resistors.
 Length: same order of magnitude as or greater than the
wavelength of the transmitted signal, the line takes on
special characteristics and requires a more complex
analysis.
 Speed in cable: 0.5-0.95*speed of light in space, C
 Thus the calculated length of cables is shorter than
wavelengths in free space.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Wavelength of Cables
𝟑𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝀𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 =
𝒇
Samples:
1. Determine the wavelength of:
a. f = 60Hz
b. f = 3MHz
c. f = 50MHz
2. For an operating frequency of 450 MHz, what length
(ft) of a pair of conductors is considered to be a
transmission line? Ans. 0.22ft

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Connectors
 used to terminate transmission lines, a device that
connects the cable to a piece of equipment or to
another cable.
 Basic types: Power plug and outlet
 common failure point in many applications.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Connectors
Coaxial Cable Connectors
 are designed not only to provide a convenient way to
attach and disconnect equipment and cables but also to
maintain the physical integrity and electrical properties
of the cable.
 depends on the type & size of cable, frequency of
operation, and the application.
 most common types:
a. PL-259 / UHF d. F connectors
b. BNC e. SMA connectors
c. N-type connectors
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Coaxial Cable Connectors
PL-259 / UHF male connector
 HF, VHF and up to low UHF values (less than 500 MHz)
 can accommodate both large (up to 0.5-in) and small
(0.25-in) coaxial cable.
 permit the connector to attach to matching screw
threads on a female connector called the SO-239.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-3: UHF connectors. (a) PL-259 male connector. (b) Internal construction and
connections for the PL-259. (c) SO-239 female chassis connector.
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Coaxial Cable Connectors
BNC connectors
 very popular connector, in LANs and some UHF radios.
 widely used on 0.25-in coaxial cables for attaching test
instruments (oscilloscopes, frequency counters, and
spectrum analyzers) to the equipment being tested.

Figure 13-4 BNC connectors. (a) Male. (b) Female.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Coaxial Cable Connectors
Barrel connectors
 variations of BNC connectors
 allows 2 cables to be attached to each other end to end
T coupler
 variations of BNC connectors, permits taps on cables

Figure 13-4 BNC connectors. (c) Barrel connector. (d) T connector.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Coaxial Cable Connectors
SMA connector
 uses screw threads instead of the cam slot and pin
 characterized by the hexagonal shape of the body of
the male connector
 used with smaller coaxial cable

Figure 13-5 SMA connector.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Coaxial Cable Connectors
F-type connector
 least expensive coaxial cable connector
 widely used: TV sets, VCRs, DVD players, & cable TV
 a hex-shaped outer ring is threaded to attach the plug to
the mating jack.

Figure 13-6 The F

connector used on TV
sets, VCRs, and cable
TV boxes.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-6: The F connector used on TV sets, VCRs, and cable TV boxes.
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Coaxial Cable Connectors
RCA phonograph connector
 inexpensive coaxial connector
 used primarily in audio equipment
 designed over 60 years ago to
connect phonograph pick-up arms
from turntables to amplifiers, these
versatile and low-cost devices can
be used at radio frequencies and
have been used for TV set
connections in the low VHF range.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-7 RCA phonograph connectors are sometimes used for RF connectors
up to VHF.
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Coaxial Cable Connectors
N-type connector
 best-performing coaxial connector
 used mainly on large coaxial cable at the higher
frequencies, both UHF and microwave
 complex and expensive, but do a better job than other
connectors in maintaining the electrical characteristics
of the cable through the interconnections.

Figure 13-8 N-type coaxial connector.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Characteristic Impedance
 When the length of transmission line is longer than
several wavelengths at the signal frequency, the two
parallel conductors of the transmission line appear as a
complex impedance.
 Lumped model of a distributed line.

(a) Distributed line with lumped components

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

(b) Simplified equivalent circuit

The effects of the inductance and capacitance are

considerable, and in fact they determine the characteristics
of the line.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Characteristic Impedance
 An RF generator connected to a considerable length of
transmission line sees an impedance that is a function
of the inductance, resistance, and capacitance in the
circuit—the characteristic or surge impedance (Z0).

Transmission Line
Maximum Power Transfer
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Characteristic Impedance
Transmission Line
 Infinitely long transmission line:

*Impedance meter or bridge

- used to measure the
inductance and capacitance of
a parallel-wire line and coax
cable.
 Finite length:

when

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Sample
 Assume that a capacitance of 0.0022 µF is measured for
100ft. The inductance of each conductor is measured
separately and then added, for a total of 5.5 µH.

* Z0 is independent of the length.

* Z0 does not matter at less than the 1.0 wavelength.
Common Zo
Transmission Lines
(Ω)
1. Twin-lead Balanced Line 300
2. Open-wire Line 450 & 600
3. Coaxial Cable 52,53.5, 75, 93, & 125

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Velocity Factor
 The speed of the signal in the transmission line is
slower than the speed of a signal in free space.
 The velocity of propagation of a signal in a cable is less
than the velocity of propagation of light in free space by
a fraction called the velocity factor (VF).
 values vary from 0.5 – 0.9

Transmission Lines VF
1. 300 Ω Twin-lead Balanced Line 0.8
2. Open-wire Line 0.9
3. Coaxial Cable 0.6 – 0.8 where: C = 300,000,000 m/s

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Velocity Factor
𝟏
𝑽𝑭 = where: ɛ - dielectric constant
ɛ
Sample: Determine the speed of the signal propagating in
the coaxial cable with Teflon as insulating material.
Ans.
207019667.8m/s

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Velocity of lossless (zero-resistance) line

Sample:
Assume a coaxial cable with a characteristic impedance
of 50 Ω and a capacitance of 30 pF/ft. The inductance per
foot is 0.075 µH. Determine the velocity of propagation per
foot in this cable and the velocity factor. Ans.
Vp = 6.7 x 108 ft/s
VF = 0.68

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Transmission line Length (actual)
before:

Actual length:

Sample:
Find the actual length in feet of a quarter-wavelength
segment of coaxial cable with a VF of 0.65 at 30 MHz.
Ans. 5.33 ft

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Time Delay
 a signal applied at one end of a line appears some time
later at the other end of the line.
 also called as transit time.
 because the velocity of propagation of a transmission
line is less than the velocity of propagation in free
space, any line will slow down or delay any signal
applied to it.
 a transmission line used specifically for the purpose of
achieving delay is called a delay line.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-11
(a) Sine wave delay
causes a lagging
phase shift
(b) Pulse delay.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Time Delay
 the amount of delay time is a function of a line’s
inductance and capacitance.

 per unit length of line (depends on the given)

Sample:
If the capacitance of a particular line is 30 pF/ft and its
inductance is 0.075 μH/ft, determine the delay time. A
50-ft length of this line would introduce ___ delay time.
Ans. 75 ns
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Time delay introduced by a coaxial cable can also be
calculated by using the formula:

Phase shift (θ)

where: T = 1/f, ns
td, ns

Applications
1. LANs
2. Artificial delay lines: TV sets, oscilloscopes, radar units,
and many other pieces of electronic equipment.
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Samples:
1. The total time delay introduced by a 75-ft coaxial
cable with a dielectric constant of 2.3 is ___.
Ans. 115.56 ns

2. Determine the resulting phase shift of a frequency 4

MHz of a 50-ft line with capacitance of a particular
line 20 pF/ft and inductance 0.057 μH/ft.
Ans. 76.87 degs

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Transmission-Line Specifications
 many coaxial cables are designated by alphanumeric
code beginning with the letters Radio Guide ‘RG’ or a
manufacturer’s part number.
 Primary specifications: characteristic impedance &
attenuation.
 Other important specifications: maximum breakdown
voltage rating, capacitance per foot, velocity factor, and
outside diameter in inches.
 The attenuation is the amount of power lost per 100 ft
of cable expressed in decibels at 100 MHz.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-12: Table of common transmission line characteristics.

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Transmission-Line Specifications
 Attenuation is directly proportional to cable length and
increases with frequency.
 Loss is significant at very high frequencies.
 A transmission line is a low-pass filter whose cutoff
frequency depends on distributed inductance and
capacitance along the line and on length.
 It is important to use larger, low-loss cables for longer
runs despite cost and handling inconvenience.
 A gain antenna can be used to offset cable loss.

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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Figure 13-14: Attenuation versus length for RG-58A/U coaxial cable. Note that both
scales on the graph are logarithmic.
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Figure 13-13 Attenuation versus frequency for common coaxial cables. Note that
both scales on the graph are logarithmic.
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13-1: Transmission-Line Basics

Sample
1. A 165-ft section of RG-58A/U at 100 MHz is being
used to connect a transmitter to an antenna. Its input
power from a transmitter is 100 W. What are the total
attenuation and the output power to the antenna?
Ans.
Att = -8.745 dB
To minimize loss: Po = 13.35 W
 Every attempt should be made to find a way to shorten the
distance between the transmitter and the antenna.
 It may be possible to use a larger cable that depends on the
impedance.

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*Microwave signal above 1 GHz are routinely carried by coax.
Sample:
A 150-ft length of RG-62A/U coaxial cable is used as a
transmission line. Find:
a. the load impedance that must be used to terminate the
line to avoid reflections,
Ans.
b. the equivalent inductance per foot, a. 93 Ω
c. the time delay introduced by the cable, b. 116.76 nH/ft
d. the phase shift that occurs on a 2.5-MHz c. 188.3 ns
d. 169.47°
sine wave, e. 4.2 dB
e. and the total attenuation in decibels.

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