STEEL AND

ALUMINUM
GROUP
3
 STEEL

08/21/19
 HISTORY OF
STEEL
•1500 B.C – use of iron started when primitive
furnaces were used to heat the ore in a charcoal
fire.
•18th Century- Blast furnace was developed.
•mid-1800’s – Bessemer converter was invented
and steel production started.
•Second half of 19th century- Steel Technology
advance rapidly due to the invention of BASIC
OXYGEN FURNACE.
 STEEL PRODUCTS USED IN
CONSTRUCTION:
• Structural Steel –used in plates, bars, pipes etc.
• Fastening Products- used for structural connections,
including bolts, nuts, washers etc.
• Reinforcing Steel (REBAR) – use in concrete reinforcement.
• Civil and Construction Engineers rarely have the opportunity
to formulate steel with specific properties. Rather, they must
select existing products from suppliers.
• Specific shapes can be made to order, the cost to fabricate
low-volume members is generally prohibited. Therefore, the
majority of civil engineering projects are designed using
standard steel types.
STEEL PRODUCTION
 STEEL
PRODUCTION
THREE PHASES OF STEEL
PRODUCTION:
• Reducing iron ore to pig iron
• Refining pig iron to steel
• Forming the steel into products
 STEEL
PRODUCTION
•The materials use to produce pig iron are coal,
limestone, and iron ore. The coal after
transformation to COKE, supplies carbon used to
reduce iron oxide in the ore.
•Limestone is used to help remove impurities.
•Reduction of the ore to pig iron is accomplished
in a blast furnace. The ore is heated in the
presence of carbon.
•Oxygen in the ore reacts with carbon to form
gases. A flux is used to help remove
impurities.
 STEEL
PRODUCTION
•Molten iron with an excess carbon in
solution will be collected at the
bottom of the furnace. While the
impurities slag, float on top of molten
pig iron.
•Excess carbon, along with other
impurities must be removed to
produce high-quality steel.
TYPES OF FURNACES FOR
REFINING
PIG IRON:
•Open
hearth
•Basic
Oxygen
•Electric arc
 TYPES OF FURNACES FOR
REFINING PIG IRON:
•During steel production, oxygen may become
dissolved in the liquid metal. As the steel
solidifies, the oxygen can combine with carbon to
form carbon monoxide bubbles that can
act as failure points.
•Deoxidizing agents, such as ALUMINUM,
FERROSILICON, and MANGANESE can eliminate
the formation of carbon monoxide bubbles.
•Completely deoxidized steels are known as
“KILLED STEELS”
STEELS THAT ARE GENERALLY
KILLED INCLUDE:
•Those with carbon content greater than 0.25%
•All forging grades of steels
•Structural steels with carbon content between
0.15 and 0.25%
•Some special steel in the lower carbon ranges.
•The molten steel with the desired chemical
composition, is then either cast into INGOTS
(large blocks of steels) or cast
continuously into desired shape.
 MILD STEEL

(photomicrograph of hot
rolled mild steel)
 MILD STEEL
• The significance of ferrite, pearlite and iron
carbide formation is the properties of steel are
highly dependent on the relative proportions of
ferrite and iron carbide.
• Ferrite has relatively low strength but very
ductile while iron carbide has high strength but
has virtually no ductility. Combining these
materials alters the mechanical properties of
steel.
• Increasing the carbon content increases strength
and hardness, but reduces ductility.
 HEAT
TREATMENT OF
STEEL
COMMON HEAT TREATMENTS:

Annealin It is a heat treatment

g process whereby a metal
is heated into a specific
Normalizi temperature or colour
ng and then allowed to heat
Hardenin slowly.
g
Temperin
g
COMMON HEAT TREATMENTS:

Annealin
g
Full Annealing

Process
Annealing
Stress Relief
Annealing
Spheroidizatio
n
COMMON HEAT TREATMENTS:

Annealin The process involves heating

g the steel to 30 to 50 degrees
Centigrade above the critical
temperature of steel and
maintaining the temperature
Process for a specified period of
Annealing time, then allowing the
Stress Relief material to slowly cool down
Annealing inside the furnace itself
Spheroidizatio without any forced means of
n cooling.
COMMON HEAT TREATMENTS:

Annealin
g This process is mainly suited
Full Annealing for low carbon steel. The
material is heated up to a
temperature just below the
lower critical temperature of
Stress Relief steel. Cold worked steel
Annealing normally tends to posses
Spheroidizatio increased hardness and
n decrease ductility making it
difficult to work.
COMMON HEAT TREATMENTS:

Annealin
g
Full Annealing

Process This process involves

Annealing heating the casting or
structure to about 650
Degree centigrade. The
Spheroidizatio temperature is maintained
n constantly for a few hours
COMMON HEAT TREATMENTS:

Annealin
g
Full Annealing

Process
Annealing This is a process for high
Stress Relief carbon and alloy steel in
Annealing order to improve their
machinability. The process
tends to improve the
internal structure of the
COMMON HEAT TREATMENTS:

Annealin Steel is normalized by

g heating to about 60°C
above the austenite line
Normalizi and then cooling under
ng natural convection. Then
Hardenin air cooled. Since the rate
of cooling is faster than full
g
annealing, the cooling of
Temperin shapes results to having
g less uniformity of parts.
COMMON HEAT TREATMENTS:

Annealin Alloys are heated above the

g critical transformation
temperature for the material,
Normalizi then cooled rapidly enough to
ng cause the soft initial material
to transform to a much
Hardenin harder, stronger structure.
g Alloys may be air cooled, or
cooled by quenching in oil,
Temperin water, or another liquid,
g depending upon the amount
COMMON HEAT TREATMENTS:

Annealin Tempering is the process of

g reheating the steel at a
relatively low temperature
Normalizi leading to precipitation
ng and spheroidization of the
Hardenin carbides present in the
microstructure. The
g
tempering temperature
Temperin and times are generally
g controlled to produce the
COMMON HEAT TREATMENTS:

Hardenin
g
Temperin
g
ALLOYS
 are metallic compounds composed of
one metal and one or more metal or non-
metal element.
Common steel alloying
Aids nitriding Promotes
agents: Removes
Restricts grain austenitic oxygen in steel
froth structure, molding,
Removes Increases increases
oxygen in steel hardenability & hardenability
melting toughness and toughness
Promotes Promotes grain
Aids refinement,
machinability tenacious oxide
increases
to aid
Reduces hardenability &
atmospheric high
weldability and corrosion
ductility temperature
resistance strength
Increases Increases
hardenability Promotes grain
hardenability,
resistance to refinement,
corrosion & high- promotes an
increases
temperature austenitic
hardenability
strength structure
STRUCTURAL STEEL
 STRUCTURAL STEEL
•Structural steel is used in hot-rolled
structural shapes, plates and bars.
Structural steel is used for various
types of structural members, such as
columns, beams, bracings, frames,
trusses, bridge girders, and other
structural applications.
 STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADES
•There are wide variety of systems for identifying or
designating steel, based on grade, type and class.
•In the United States, these are:
1. Society of Automotive Engineers, SAE
2. American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM
3. American Iron and Steel Institute, AISI
•The most widely used designation system was
cooperatively developed by SAE and AISI based on
chemical composition.
 STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADES
•However, the materials and products used
in buildings and construction in the United
States are almost exclusively designated
by ASTM specifications. ASTM
specification names consists of a letter,
specifically for certain type of metals.
Example: A for ferrous metals and ASTM
A7 was a specification written in 1900 and
ASTM A992 was published in 1999.
 STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADES
•The designation or specification number
does not contain any meaningful number
other than to serve as a reference. In some
ASTM specifications, the term grade
identifies yield strength, while, in other
specifications, the term grade can
indicate requirements for both chemical
compositions and mechanical properties.
 STRUCTURAL STEEL GRADES
•ASTM and SAE have developed the
Unified Numbering System, UNS
(ASTM E527), based on chemical
composition.
•This system uses a letter to identify the
broad class of alloys, and a five-
digit number to define specific alloys
within the class.
 SECTIONAL SHAPES
• The letter indicates the shape while the
two numbers indicate the nominal
depth and the weight per linear unit
length.
• W- doubly symmetric wide-flange
shapes whose flanges are substantially
parallel.
• HP- wide-flange whose flanges and
webs are of the same nominal
thickness, depth and width.
 Fastening Products
Fastening products includes (Carter, 2004) :
- conventional bolts
- twist-off-type tension control bolt assemblies
- nuts
- washers
- compressible-washer-type direct tension
indicators
- anchor rods
- threaded rods
- forged steel structural hardware
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Structural connections

1. Riveting
2. Bolting
3. Welding
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Riveting
- rivet are special kind of metal bolt or pin
that is used to hold pieces of metal together.
- used extensively in the past but modern
bolt technology make it obsolete.
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Bolting
-bolted connections may be snug tightened,
pre- tensioned or slip-critica (Miller 2001).

A. Snug-tightened
- accomplished by either a few impacts of
an impact wrench or the full effort of an
ironworker using an ordinary spud wrenched
to bring members into firm contact.
B. Pre-tensioned
- require tightening the bolt to a
significant tensile stress with a
corresponding compressive stress in the
attached members.
- methods to ensure the bolt is
tightened: turn-of-nut, calibrated wrench,
twist-off-type tension-control bolts, and
direct tension indicators.
C. Slip-critical
- also installed in pre-tensioned
requirements, but these joints have “faying-
surfaces” that have been prepared to provide a
calculable resistance against slip.
- rather than friction, bolts are placed in
shear when slip occurs.
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REINFORCING STEEL
 Since concrete has negligible tensile
strength, structural concrete members
subjected to tensile and flexural stresses
must be reinforced. Either conventional or
prestressed reinforcing can be used,
depending on the design situation.
Conventional reinforcing - the stress
fluctuate with loads on the structure.
Prestressed reinforcing - the steel is
under continuous tension.
Reinforcing steel (rebar)
- manufactured in three form: plain
bars, deformed bars, and plain and
deformed wire fabrics.
• Plain bars - round, without deformation,
with limited bond with concrete.
• Deformed bars - have protrusions, ensure a
good bond with the concrete.
• Wire fabrics - flat sheets in which wires pass
through each other at right angles.
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Deformed bars are used in concrete
beams, slabs, column, walls, footings,
pavements and other concrete
structures, as well as in masonry
construction.
Welded wire fabrics are used in some
concrete slabs and pavements, mostly
to resist temperature and shrinkage
stresses. It is more economical to place.
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 Prestressed concrete requires special wires,
strands, cables, and bars. Steel for prestressed
concrete reinforcement must have high strength
and low relaxation properties. High-carbon
steels and high-strength alloy steel are used for
these purpose. Properties of prestressed
concrete reinforcement are presented in ASTM
specification A416 and AASHTO specification
M203.
 Relaxation refers to the percent of stress
reduction that occurs when a constant amount of
strain is applied over an extended time period. Both
stress-relieved and low relaxation steels can be
specified as Grade 250 or Grade 270, with the
ultimate strengths of 1725 MPa (250 ksi) and 1860
MPa (270 ksi), respectively.
MECHANICAL TESTING
OF STEEL
 Test specimens can take several shapes, such as bar,
tube, wire, flat section, and notched bar, depending on the
test purpose and the application. Certain methods of
fabrication such as bending, forming, and welding, or
operations involving heating, may affect the properties of
material being tested. Therefore, the product specifications
cover the stage of manufacture at which mechanical
testing is performed. In addition, flaws in the specimen or
improper machining or preparation of the test specimen
will give erroneous results (ASTM A370).
TENSION TEST (ASTM E8)
Is performed to determine the yield
strength, yield point, ultimate (tensile)
strength, elongation, and reduction of area.
Typically, the test is performed at
temperature between 10°C and 35°C.
Several cross-sectional shapes of specimens
are round and rectangular specimen.
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TORSION TEST (ASTM E143)
Is used to determine the shear
modulus of structural materials. The
shear modulus is used is used in the
design of members subjected to torsion,
such as rotating shafts and helical
compression springs. Also, shear modulus
is the ratio of maximum shear stress to
the corresponding shear strain below the
proportional limit of the material.
CHARPY V NOTCH IMPACT TEST (ASTM
E23)
Is used to measure the toughness of
the material or the energy required to
fracture a V-notched simply supported
specimen. The test is used for structural
steels in tension members. The standard
specimen is 55x10x10mm with a V-notch
at the center.
 BEND TESTING
• Bend testing a material allows for the
determination of that materials ductility,
bend strength, fracture strength and resistance
to fracture.
• Steel is bend to a desired shape specifically in
the case of reinforcing steel.
• It evaluates the ability of steel to resist cracking.
• Weld Bending Test - One of the more popular
uses of bend testing.
 BEND TESTING
• The sample weld is deformed using a
guided bend test so that it forms a
“U” subjecting the material.
• Types of Materials used in bending
application bend test:
1. Sheets
2. Steel bars
3. Shells
4. Strips
5. Pipes
BEND TESTING
BEND TESTING
 HARDNESS TEST
What is hardness?
property of a material that enables it
to resist plastic deformation, usually by
penetration
however, the term “hardness” also
refers to resistance to bending,
scratching, abrasion or cutting.
 HARDNESS TEST
HARDNESS TEST METHOD:
•Rockwell Hardness Test
•Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test
•Brinell Hardness Test
•Vickers Hardness Test
•Microhardness Test
 HARDNESS TEST
Rockwell Hardness Test
commonly used to measure hardness of
steel and metals that easier to perform
more accurate than other types of hardness
testing methods
in this test the depth of penetration of a
diamond cone or a steel ball into the
specimen is determine under fixed
conditions. 
 HARDNESS TEST
Rockwell Superficial Hardness test
used to test very thin steel or thin
surface layers
same procedure as the Rockwell except
the smaller preliminary and total load of
used
 HARDNESS TEST
Brinell Hardness Test
first widely used standardized steel
hardness test
most commonly used to test materials
that have a structure that is too coarse
or that have a surface that is too rough
to be tested using another test method
castings and forgings
 HARDNESS TEST
Vickers Hardness Test
can test all materials, whether hard or
soft
it was the widest scale of indices, and is
easier to use than the other steel hardness
tests
 HARDNESS TEST
Micro-Hardness testing
method of determining a material’s
hardness or resistance to penetration
when test samples are very small or thin,
or when small regions in a composite
sample or plating are to be measured
can measure surface to core hardness on
carburized or case-hardened parts
WELDING
 WELDING
 technique for joining two metal pieces
by applying heat to fuse the pieces
together
 filler metal may be used to facilitate the
process
 chemical properties of the welding
material must be carefully selected to be
compatible with the materials being
welded
TYPES OF WELDING
Arc Welding
ARC WELDING
it uses an arc between the electrode and
the grounded base metal to bring both the
base metal and the electrode to their
melting points
the resulting deposited weld metal is a
cast structure with a composition
dependent upon the base metal, electrode,
and flux chemistry
 TYPES OF ARC WELDING
SHIELDED ARC WELDING
also called as stick welding, most common
form of arc welding
limited to short welds in bridge construction
a consumable electrode, which is covered with
flux, is used. The flux produces a shielding
atmosphere at the arc to prevent oxidation of
the molten metal. The flux is also used to trap
impurities in the molten weld pool.
 TYPES OF ARC WELDING
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
a semiautomatic or automatic arc welding
process
a bare wire electrode is automatically fed by
the welding machine while a granular flux is
fed into the joint head of the electrode
the arc takes place in the molten flux, which
completely shields the weld pool from the
atmosphere
 TYPES OF ARC WELDING
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
the molten flux concentrates the arc heat,
resulting in deep penetration into the base
metal
TYPES OF WELDING
Gas Welding
GAS WELDING
also called as mig welding, another type
of welding in which no flux is used
an external shielding gas is used, which
shields the molten weld pool and provides
the desired arc characteristics
normally used for small welds due to the
lack of slag formation
 WELDING
 care must be taken during welding to
consider the distortion that is the result of
the non uniform heating of the welding
process
 when the molten weld metal cools, it shrinks,
causing deformation of the material and
introducing residual stresses into the
structure. Frequently, these residual stress,
as cause cracks outside the weld area.
 WELDING
 The distortion produced by welding can
be controlled by proper sequencing of the
welds and pre-deforming the components
prior to welding.
 Finally, care must be taken by the welder
and the inspector to protect their eyes
and skin from the intensive ultraviolet
radiation produced during welding (Frank
and Smith 1990).
 WELDING
Winterton developed the concept of
using a carbon equivalent formula for
estimating the carbon equivalent of steels
and an associated zone chart for
determining the need to preheat steel to
control the development of hydrogen in
the
•  welded steel. The one used for
structural steels is:
 WELDING
The zones are used as a guide to
determining the method used to determine
preheat requirements (Hassett, 2003):

Zone I - Cracking is unlikely, but may

occur with high hydrogen or high restraint.
Use hydrogen control method to determine
preheat.
 WELDING
 Zone II - The hardness control method
and selected hardness shall be used to
determine minimum energy input for
single-pass fillet welds without preheat.

 Zone III-The hydrogen central method

shall be used.
WELDING
 WELDING
• The hardness and hydrogen control
methods are means of determining the
level of energy used to preheat the
weld area before the weld is
performed.
• Preheating of the metal and the use of
low hydrogen electrodes are the best
means of avoiding hydrogen
embrittlement.
 WELDING
• This occurs when steel is melted
during welding, which may allow
hydrogen to dissolve in the molten
metal and diffuse into the base metal
adjacent to the weld.
STEEL CORROSION
 STEEL CORROSION
 defined as destruction of a material by
electrochemical reaction to the environment
 defined as the destruction that can be
detected by rust formation
 it is a electrochemical process that is a
chemical reaction in which there is transfer of
electrons from one chemical species to
another
 Oxidation Reduction – a process that involves
the transfer between iron and oxygen
 STEEL CORROSION
Requirements for corrosion to occur:
•An anode – the electrode where corrosion
occurs
•A cathode – the other electrode needed to
form corrosion cell
•A conductor – a metallic pathway for
electrons to flow
•An electrolyte – a liquid that support the
flow of electrons
 STEEL CORROSION
•Oxidation Reduction – a process that involves the
transfer between iron and oxygen.
Requirements for corrosion to occur:
•An anode – the electrode where corrosion occurs
•A cathode – the other electrode needed to form
corrosion cell
•A conductor – a metallic pathway for electrons to
flow
•An electrolyte – a liquid that support the flow of
electrons
 STEEL CORROSION
 Steel being a heterogeneous material
contains anodes and cathodes. Steel
is also an electrical conductor.
Therefore, steel contains three of the
four needed elements for corrosion,
while moisture is usually the fourth
element (electrolyte).
 STEEL CORROSION
 Salt is a common contaminant of that
accelerates the corrosion of steel
bridges and reinforcing steel in
concrete.
 The environment plays an important
role in determining corrosion rates.
METHOD FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE
1. Barrier coatings
 work solely by isolating the steel
from the moisture
 these coatings have low water and
oxygen permeability
METHOD FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE
2. Inhabitive primer coatings
 contain passivating pigments
 low solubility pigments that
migrate to the steel surface when
moisture passes through the film to
passivate the steel surface
METHOD FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE
3. Sacrificial primers (cathodic
protection)
 contain pigments such as elemental zinc
 since zinc is higher than iron in the
galvanic series, when corrosion
conditions exist the zinc gives up
electrons to the steel, becomes the
anode, and corrodes to protect the steel
METHOD FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE
3. Sacrificial primers (cathodic
protection)
 there should be close contact
between the steel and the sacrificial
primer in order to have an effective
corrosion protection.
ALUMINU
M
 ALUMINUM
the most plentiful metal on earth,
representing 8% of its crust
aluminum exist as oxides
the process of extracting aluminum from
oxide is very intensive
the properties of pure aluminum are not
suitable for structural application
 ALUMINUM
alloying elements are almost always added
in terms of the amount of metal produced,
aluminum is second only to steel
about 25% of aluminum produced is used for
containers and packaging , 20 % for
architectural applications, such as doors,
windows, and siding and 10% for electrical
conductors
 ALUMINUM
Two reasons for the limited use of
aluminum:
1.) The relatively high initial cost when
compared with steel
2.) Lack of performance information on
aluminum structures
 ADVANTAGES OF ALUMINUM
According to Budinski (1998):
1.Has 1/3 the density of steel
2.Has good thermal and electrical conductivity
3.Has high strength-to-weight ratio
4.Can be given a hard surface by anodizing and hard
coating
5.Has alloy that are weldable
6.Will not rust
 ADVANTAGES OF ALUMINUM
According to Budinski (1998):
7.Has high reflectivity
8.Can be die cast
9.Is easily machined
10.Has good formability
11.Is nonmagnetic
12.Is nontoxic
 ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
Aluminum production uses processes that were
developed in the 1880’s
Bayer developed the sodium aluminate
leaching process to produce pure alumina
(AL₂O₂)
Hall and Héroult, working independently,
developed an electrolytic process for reducing
the alumina to pure alumina
 ALUMINUM METALLURGY
Aluminum has a face center cubic (FCC) lattice
structure
It is very malleable
Typical elongation over a 50-mm(2-in.)
Gauge length over 40%
Limited tensile strength, on the order of 28 Mpa
(4000psi)
 ALUMINUM METALLURGY
Through addition of small amounts of
alloying element, aluminum alloy can be
as much 15 times stronger than pure
aluminum
The common alloying elements are
Copper, Manganese, Silicon, Magnesium,
and Zinc
CASTING METHODS
1. Sand Casting
2. Permanent Mold Casting
3. Die casting
FORMING METHODS
1. Extrusion
2. Rolling
3. Roll forming
4. Brake Forming
5. Cutting Operation
6. Embossing
7. Drawing
8. Superplastic Forming
Wrought aluminum alloys are used for
products fabricated by deforming the
aluminum into its final shape. The
Aluminum Association has developed an
aluminum alloy classification system .
 TEMPER TREATMENT
The mechanical properties of aluminum
are greatly altered by both heat
treatment and strain hardening.
Therefore, specification of an aluminum
material must include the manner in
which the products was tempered.
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ALUMINUM TESTING AND
MATERIALS
 WELDING AND FASTENING
Aluminum pieces can be joined by
welding or by using fasteners
Welding requires that the tough oxide
coating on aluminum be broken and
kept during welding, so arc welding is
generally performed in the presence of
an inert gas that shield the weld from
oxygen in the atmosphere
 WELDING AND FASTENING
• Rivet fastener are made of aluminum
and are cold driven .
• Both bolt and rivet joints are designed
based on the shear strength of the
fastener and the bearing strength of
the material being fastened.
 CORROSION
Galvic corrosion occurs when aluminum
isin contact with any of several metals
in the presence of an electrical
conductor,such as water.