Module 3

CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS AND

CUTTING FLUIDS
Introduction: In metal cutting, the characteristics of both
tool and work materials play important roles. They affect the
cutting forces and cutting conditions. For good cutting action
the tool material should be harder than work material.

Properties of tool materials:

1. Hot hardness:
 It is the ability of a material to retain its hardness at higher
temperatures, developed due to high friction.
 The hardness of the material reduces with increase in
temperature.
 Very few materials have the ability to retain hardness at
higher cutting speeds and temperatures.
2. Wear resistance:

 It is the property of a material to withstand excessive wear

under abrasive conditions.

 A harder material will naturally have a higher wear

resistance, however, it depends upon the relative hardness of
the work tool materials.

 It is desirable to have a high wear resistance for a tool

material for a longer tool life.
3. Toughness:

 It is the ability of the material to absorb energy in its plastic

range.

 Higher the toughness higher is the capacity of the material

to absorb shocks and impact loads

 It is a combination of optimum strength and ductility.

 Tool materials should have high toughness.

4. Coefficient of friction:
 Must be low for minimum tool wear and good surface finish.

5. Chemical stability:
 Must be stable or inert with respect to work material, so as to
reduce tool wear and increase tool life.

6. Economy:
 It should result economical process.
Types of Tool materials:
1. Plain carbon steels
2. Alloy steels
3. High speed steels
4. Cast cobalt alloys
5. Carbides (cemented or sintered)
6. Ceramics (Aluminium oxide)
7. Cermets
8. Coated tools
9. Diamonds and PCD
10. Cubic Boron Nitrides (CBN)
11. Abrasives
Plain Carbon steels:
 Are usually high carbon steels.
 Used for turning, drilling, planing, reaming and others metal
cutting applications.
 Carbon ranges from 0.8 t0 1.5%.
 On heat treatment (hardening and tempering) they attain high
hardness, strength and toughness.
 Lose hardness at high temperatures of about 2500C.
 Suitable for low speed and low temperature applications.
 Used for ductile and soft materials like MS, Al, & Cu.
 Suitable for medium depth of cut and roughing operation.
ADVANTAGES:
 Easy to fabricate and achieve hardness.
 Highly cost effective.
 Suitable for general purpose engineering applications.
DIS ADVANTAGES:
 Low hot hardness and low wear resistance.
 Hardness decreases with increase in temperature.
 Applicable only for ductile materials.
 Not suitable for high depth of cut.
Medium Alloy Steels:
 Low/medium steel tool- up to 1% carbon and alloying
elements up to 5%.
 Alloying elements are Tungsten, vanadium,
molybdenum and chromium.
 These elements impart harden ability, hot hardness,
improve toughness and wear resistance.
 Since hardness reduces with temperature, suitable for
low speed metal cutting operations.
ADVANTAGES:
 Work satisfactorily for medium cutting speeds and slightly
harder materials.
 Perform better compared to plain carbon steels.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Can retain hardness up to a temperature of 3500C.
 High cost and difficult to fabricate.
High speed steels:
 Most widely used tool material in engg.
 Highly alloyed tool steel.
 Can retain hardness even at high speed where
temperature is as high as 6500C, hence name high
speed steel.
 Hardness of the range of 65HRC.
 Cutting speed ranges from 15 to 30m/min.
Types of HSS tools:
a) 18-4-1 HSS:
 High tungsten steel containing 18% W, 4%Cr and 1% Va.
 Highly efficient of all HSS tools.
 Possesses good wear resistance and heat resistance.
b) 6-6-4-2 HSS:
 High molybdenum steel containing 6% Mo, 6% W, 4% Cr,
and 2% Va.
 Has high toughness and strength.
c) Super HSS:
 Has high hot hardness and wear resistance at higher
cutting speeds, hence the name Super HSS.
 Contains 15% Co, 10-20% W, 2-4% Cr and 2-4% Va.
 Offers higher cutting efficiency, can take heavier cuts and
function at higher temperatures.
Alloying elements and their effects:
The effects of these alloying elements are given below:
1. Carbon (C): Carbon about 0.7-1.5% imparts basic hardness and
strength in the tool steel, by forming the hard martenstic
structure.
2. Tungsten (W): In the range of 12 to 18%, improves the hot
hardness property of the tool, as it provides tempering beyond
tempering temperature.
3. Chromium (Cr): In the range of 4-4.5%, contributes to hot
hardness.
4. Vanadium (V): In the range of 1 to 5%, forms vanadium carbide
which is highly abrasion resistant, imparts good wear resistance.
5. Molybdenum (Mo): Less than 0.9%, helps to retain the sharp
cutting edge at high temperatures and improve toughness.
6. Cobalt (Co): In the range of 5 to 12%, improve the hardenability
and wear resistance.
Applications:
 Used in the form of drills, reamers, taps milling cutters and
as single point cutting tools.
 HSS can be processed by three methods: cast, wrought and
sintered.
 These tools can be coated and surface treated to improve
hardness, wear resistance and overall performance.
ADVANTAGES:
High hot hardness.

High wear and abrasive resistance.

Improved hardenability and toughness.

Overall better machining performance, cutting efficiency

with longer tool life.

DISADVANTAGES:
Expensive.

Difficult to fabricate and process.

Cast cobalt alloys and stellites:
These are non-ferrous cast alloys made of cobalt, chromium
and tungsten.
Consists of 38 to 53% Co, 30 to 35% Cr, 10 to 20% W, with 1.5
to 2.5% C.
Hardness in the range of 58 to 65HRC, possess high hot
hardness and wear resistance.
Cannot be forged into shapes because of high hardness and
brittleness.
These are cast and ground into small shapes.
These tools in the form of tips are mounted on the tough
steel shanks by brazing or fastening.
Most suitable for high speed, high feed continous roughing
operations.
ADVANTAGES:
Has high wear resistance.

Retain hardness up to 10000C.

Can be used at very high cutting speeds.

DISADVANTAGES:
Very brittle and cannot be used under impact machining
conditions.

Not tough as HSS tools, hence not suitable for interrupted

cutting operations.
Carbides (Cemented or Sintered Carbides):
These are nonferrous, carbon base cutting tool materials with
other elements.
Have high hardness, high thermal conductivity and low
thermal expansion.
These are sintered or cemented carbides and are
manufactured by powder metallurgy.
Tungsten Carbide (WC):
Is a metal matrix composite material, in which tungsten-
carbide particles (1.5mm) are bonded together in cobalt
matrix.
Pure tungsten (94% by weight) powder is mixed with pure
carbon (6%) under high temperature (15000C).
These hard particles mixed with cobalt and blended in large
mills, so that the cobalt matrix surrounds the WC particles.
This powder is then pressed into insert forms and
presintered at about 7500C.
These presintered blanks are machined to the required
shape.
Finally these inserts are sintered in high temperature vacuum
furnace to achieve the full strength and the hardness, which
are ground and honed.
Titanium is added to improve hot hardness and tantalum
minimizes wear.
Typical carbide tool will have 82% tungsten and 10% titanium
carbide and 8% cobalt.
Most suitable for machining steels, CI and high strength
nonferrous alloys.
These are superior to HSS tools.
Carbide inserts are available in square, triangle, round and
diamond shape.
These are brazed or fastened on the tool shanks.
Titanium Carbide (TiC):
These inserts are made by blending TiC particles in a nickel-
molybdenum alloy matrix.
Has higher wear resistance than WC tools, but lower
toughness because of absence of cobalt.
Suitable for high machining of hard steels and cast irons.

ADVANTAGES:
High hardness and wear resistance hence higher tool life.
Can be used under very high cutting speeds.

DISADVANTAGES:
Very expensive and difficult to fabricate.
Very brittle and have low toughness.
Ceramics:
These are pure Aluminium oxide (Al2O3), hardness 92-94
HRA.
Manufactured by cold pressing or sintering.
It involves compacting Aluminium oxide powder under high
pressure (300bar), the resulting product is termed as billet.
Billet is baked at about 12000C and this operation is termed
as sintering.
This product in the form of tool tips used as cutting material.
Ceramic tips are as hard as the carbide inserts, but brittle,
hence they require more rigid and tougher shanks.
ADVANTAGES:
Have high compressive strength and high hardness.
Have high wear resistance, hence longer tool life.
Can withstand high temperature.
DIS ADVANTAGES:
Very brittle and hence not suitable for cutting under impact
loads.
Cannot withstand vibrations and shocks.
Have low thermal conductivity.

Cermets:
These are new class of cutting tools used for finishing
operation.
Cermet stands for ceramic + metal.
Made of ceramic and metal binders such as nickel, cobalt,
Tin, TiN, TiC or other metal carbides.
Typical cermet consists of 70% Al2O3 and 30% TiC.
Produced by hot and cold pressing.
ADVANTAGES:
Higher hot hardness and oxidation resistance.
Yield superior surface finish on steel materials, due to high
chemical stability and to machine with low crater wear and
built-up-edge.

DIS ADVANTAGES:
Have low toughness.
Low thermal conductivity.
High thermal expansion.
May lead to thermal cracking in interrupted machining
operations.
Coating Materials:
Materials such as titanium nitride (TiN), titanium carbide
(TiC), titanium carbonitride (TiCN) and aluminium oxide
(Al2O3) are used as carbide inserts. Dies and HSS tools.
The coating thickness is of the order of 2 to 10 μm.
The important properties required for coating materials are:
a. Hot hardness.
b. Good bonding characteristics with the base material
(substrate).
c. Low thermal conductivity.
Coating becomes more effective when substrate material has
optimum strength, hardness, toughness and thermal conductivity.
Coated tools perform better in metal cutting and have life 2 to 3
times of the normal uncoated tools.
 TiN coating is extensively used on carbide inserts and HSS
tools, such as single point tool, drill bits and milling cutters.
TiN coating gives golden color finish to the tools and offers
high hot hardness, low coefficient of friction, good bonding
to the base and hence improved life.
TiC coating are commonly used on WC inserts. It offers
better cutting efficiency, improved flank wear resistance and
tool life.

Multiphase coating:
Two or three layers are coated.
Suitable for machining steel and cast iron.
Gives optimum performance and better tool life.
The first TiC layer bonds well with substrate, gives strength
and wear resistance.
The intermediate Al2O3 layer improves chemical stability
and resistance to abrasion wear.
The outermost TiC layer has high wear resistance, low
coefficient of friction, low thermal conductivity and helps to
reduce built-up-edge.
Coating is usually deposited via thermal chemical vapour
deposition technique ,physical vapour deposition technique.
Advantages of Coatings:
Have high hardness can perform better at very high speeds.

Coatings act as barrier to the diffusion process that occurs

due to adhesion wear.

Offer higher cutting efficiency and higher life.

Limitations of coatings:
Not suitable for cutting actions with high abrasion wear.

Not suitable for intermittent cutting actions.

Not suitable for tool regrinding operations.

Single Crystal Diamond:
Natural or single crystal diamond is the hardest of the
available cutting tool material.
Can be shaped to shape of a cutting tool.
Can cut materials at very high speeds and at higher
temperature.
Has the ability to maintain sharp cutting edge, useful for
high surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
ADV:
Very hard, incompressible and has low coefficient of friction.
Can be used to cut very strong metallic and non-metallic
materials.
DISADV:
Expensive, and because of hardness difficult to process to the
required shape.
Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD):

PCD tool blanks in the form thin layers (0.5mm to 1.5mm

thick), are produced by sintering process of the grain size
diamond particles (1 to 30 μm) at high temperature and ultra
high pressure.
This PCD layer during sintering process is carefully bonded
on to the tungsten carbide substrate by a metallurgical
operation.
The sintered diamond is then finished to the required shape
and size and accuracy by laser cutting, grinding and lapping
operations.
The tungsten carbide substrate gives the required tough
support to the hard and brittle diamond.
ADVANTAGES:
Offer better quality, higher toughness and improved wear
resistance.
Offer high cutting efficiency, long tool life, reduced cutting
costs.
Suitable for high cutting speed, light and uninterrupted
finishing operations.
DIS ADVANTAGES:
More expensive, may cause BUE problem.
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN):
It is an artificial diamond and is the second hardest material
available next to diamond.
Produced by transforming the crystal structure of carbon
from hexagonal to cubic under high temperature and
pressure conditions.
Available in round, triangle and square shapes.
CBN layers are usually mounted on the tungsten carbide
inserts.
CBN layers give required wear resistance and hardness for
cutting action.
CBN is less reactive at the tool chip interface with metals
such as hardened steels, chilled cast iron and many super
alloys.
CBN can retain hardness even at high temperatures, can be
used to machine at very high speeds.
Abrasives:
Are basically very hard grains, used in loose powder form or in
bonded form to remove metal from surfaces.
It has the properties of friability(easily broken up into small
pieces),toughness,crystalline shape and chemical composition.
Friability is the ability of the grain to fracture into smaller particles
under pressure.
Toughness is the ability of the grain to resist fracturing.
Commonly used abrasives are aluminum oxide for harder
materials, silicon carbide for machining softer materials, CBN and
diamond for very hard metals.
ADVANTAGES:
Suitable for machining all types of materials.
Operation is very faster.
Suitable for rough as well as fine finishing operations.
DISADVANTAGES:

Cannot be generally used in loose forms.

The grains are to be bonded properly on to wheels to make
the grinding wheels.

APPLICATIONS:

Used in grinding, lapping, honing and polishing operations.

Used for finishing rough surfaces like on castings, cutting
unwanted shapes like risers and runners from castings,
producing flat surfaces, contoured surfaces as in gear teeth
finishing and so on.
 Cutting Fluids:

Cutting fluids or coolants are the lubricants used in metal

cutting and grinding operations.

A cutting fluid primarily acts as the coolant to carry away the

heat generated and secondly as lubricant to reduce friction at
the tool/chip interface and work/flank interface regions.

Use of cutting fluid makes cutting operation more efficient,

by reducing tool wear, increasing tool life, improving surface
finish, reducing friction and reducing power required.
 Functions of cutting fluids:

1) To carry away the heat generated

2) To provide proper lubrication

3) To carry away the chips

4) To cool and break the chips

5) To protect the finished surface

 Properties of cutting fluids:
1. It should carry away the heat immediately from the work-
tool interface.
2. It should provide good lubrication to reduce the coefficient
of friction.
3. It should have high flash and fire points.
4. It should be chemically neutral.
5. It should be odorless under normal and high temperature
condition.
6. It should be non-corrosive.
7. It should be non-toxic.
8. It should have a low viscosity.
9. It should not get oxidized.
10. It should not be very thick and opaque.
 Types of cutting fluids:
1. Water: Plain water or water with an alkali, salt or water soluble
additive with little or no oil can be used as coolants. Plain water
generally not used because of its corroding nature.
2. Either plain oils or oils in various mixed forms are used as
cutting fluids. Different oils used as cutting fluids are:
a. Plain oils: Plain mineral oils like kerosene, low viscosity
petroleum products or animal, vegetable oils perform best as
cutting fluids. They possess very good lubricating and heat
absorbing characteristics. They protect the finish surface
because of its oily nature.
b. Water miscible or soluble oils: These are the emulsions formed
by mixing about 80% of water with soap or mineral oils. The
soap acts as emulsifying agent, thus breaking the oil into minute
particles and disperses them throughout water. Here water gives
cooling effect and oil provides lubricating effect. Suitable for
heavy cutting operations.
c. Mixed oils: These are the combination of plain mineral oils
and fatty oils. They have very good lubricating cooling
characteristics. Used for high precision and superior
surface finish.
d. Synthetic or chemical Mixed oils: Oils mixed with chemical
additives like sulphur or chlorine have an increased
lubricating and cooling qualities. Used for tough and
ductile materials.
3. Chemical compounds: These are mixtures of a chemical
rust inhibitors like sodium nitrate and high percentage of
water. These are suitable for grinding operations and
machining of ferrous materials that are more prone to
rusting.
4. Solid lubricants: commonly not used because of their non-
sticking and non-flowing characteristics. Sometimes waxes
and soaps are used as lubricants in machining.
 Selection of cutting fluids:
Factors to be considered when selecting a cutting fluid

 Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut.

 Cost and life expectancy.
 Type, hardness and microstructure of the workpiece material
being machined.
 Operating temperature range.
 Fluid compatibility with workpiece and machine
components.
 Ease of storage and handling while in use.
 Ease of fluid recycling or disposal.
 Shelf – life required.
Cutting Tool Geometry
 Cutting tool is device with which a material could be cut to the desired size, shape or
finish. So a cutting tool must have at least a sharp edge. There are two types of
cutting tool. The tool having only one cutting edge is called single point cutting
tools. For example shaper tools, lathe tools, planer tools, etc. The tool having
more than one cutting edge is called multipoint cutting tools. For example drills,
milling cutters, broaches, grinding wheel honing tool etc.

 A single point cutting tool may be either right or left hand cut tool depending on
the direction of feed.
Primary Cutting Edge

Left hand cutting Right hand cutting

tool tool

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Geometry of Single Point Cutting Tool
 Tool geometry concerns with the basic tool angles i.e.
angle ground on tool to make it efficient in cutting.

Tool axis

Shank of tool
Auxiliary Rake or Face
cutting edge
Principal cutting edge
Principal flank surface
Corner
Auxiliary flank surface

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 SHANK:- it is the body of the tool or the part on which
cutting edge is formed.
 FACE:- it is the part against which chips are beared.
 BASE:- it is the support of tool shank.

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NOSE:-it is related to the top of the cutting
edge which is usually given a radius.
FLANK:- this is the end surface i.e. adjacent to the cutting edge
and below it.
RAKE ANGLE:-it is the angle made by the face of the tool and
plane parallel to the base of the cutting tool.
CLEARANCE ANGLE:- it is the angle of the end of the side
surfaces which are below the cutting edge.

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 BACK RAKE ANGLE:-if the rake angle is measured in the
direction of tool shank , it is called back rake angle.
 SIDE RAKE ANGLE :- if measured a direction right angles
to it , then it is called side rake angle

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25/52
Side relief angle: The Side relief angle prevents the side flank of the tool
from rubbing against the work when longitudinal feed is given. Larger feed
will require greater side relief angle.
End relief angle: The End relief angle prevents the side flank of the tool
from rubbing against the work. A minimum relief angle is given to provide
maximum support to the tool cutting edge by increasing the lip angle. The
front clearance angle should be increased for large diameter works.

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 End cutting edge angle
 The function of end cutting edge angle is to prevent the trailing
front cutting edge of the tool from rubbing against the work. A
large end cutting edge angle unnecessarily weakens the tool. It
varies from 8 to 15 degrees.

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Tool Signature
 It is the system of designating the principal angles of a
single point cutting tool.
 The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the
various angles, in degrees, and the size of the nose
radius.
 There are several systems available like American
standard system (ASA),
 Orthogonal rake system (ORS), Normal rake system
(NRS), and Maximum rake system (MRS).
 The system most commonly used is American
Standard Association (ASA), which is: Bake rake angle,
Side rake angle, End relief angle, Side relief angle, End
cutting Edge angle, Side cutting Edge angle and Nose
radius.
 For example a tool may designated in the following
sequence:
 8-14-6-6-6-15-1
 Bake rake angle is 8
 Side rake angle is 14
 End relief angle is 6
 Side relief angle is 6
 End cutting Edge angle is 6
 Side cutting Edge angle is 15
 Nose radius is 1 mm
Twist drill nomenclature
 Axis: The imaginary straight line which forms the
longitudinal center line of the drill.
 Back Taper: A slight decrease in diameter from front to
back in the body of the drill.
 Body: The portion of the drill extending from the
shank or neck to the outer corners of the cutting lips.
 Body Diameter Clearance: That portion of the land
that has been cut away so it will not rub against the
walls of the hole
 Built-Up Edge: An adhering deposit of nascent
material on the cutting lip or the point of the drill

 Cam Relief: The relief from the cutting edge to the

back of the land, produced by a cam actuated cutting
tool or grinding wheel on a relieving machine.

Chip Breaker: Nicks or Grooves designed to reduce the
size of chips; they may be steps or grooves in the
cutting lip or in the leading face of the land at or
adjacent to the cutting lips
 Chisel Edge: The edge at the end of the web that
connects the cutting lips.
Chisel Edge Angle: The angle included between the
chisel edge and the cutting lip, as viewed from the end
of the drill.
Clearance: The space provided to eliminate an
desirable contact between the drill and the workpiece
Clearance Diameter: The diameter over the the cut
away portion of the drill lands
MILLING CUTTER NOMENCLATURE
 Milling cutter nomenclature
Body :- The solid portion left in a blank after
Forming the cutting teeth and the arbor hole

Flute :- flute is the space between the blank

of one tooth and the face of the fallowing tooth.

Fillet :- fillet is the radius at the bottom of flute,

Provided to allow chip flow and chip curling.

Primary clearance angle:- it is the angle formed

by the back of the tooth with a line drawn tangent through the
Periphery cutting edge.

Secondary clearance angle:- it is the angle formed by the secondary

clearance surface of the tooth and line drawn tangent through the
periphery cutting edge
BROACH tool nomenclature
Heat generation in metal cutting:
During metal cutting, energy spent in plastic deformation is
converted into heat.
Almost 99% of energy supplied is converted into heat.
This results in high temperature in the region of tool cutting
edge and chip tool interface.
This high temperature have a great influence on the rate of
tool wear and friction at the tool chip interface.
In cutting low strength and very ductile materials heat
generation is not very high.
Heat generation is high in cutting ferrous and high strength
of materials, which reduces tool strength resulting in faster
tool wear and failure.
Heat generation increases with increase in cutting speed.
Regions of heat generation in Metal cutting:

 Around shear plane

Major work by plastic deformation is done at the shear zone
and is the primary source of heat (zone 1 in Fig.).
During machining, plastic deformation of metal occurs on
the shear plane, due to which heat is generated.
This heat is carried away by the chip beacause of which
temperature is raised.
The remaining heat is retained by the workpiece and is
known as Primary deformation zone.
It is about 65-75% of the total heat generated.
Regions of heat generation in Metal cutting:
It is shown in Fig.

Tool-chip interface
When the chip flow upwards long the tool face, friction
occurs between their surfaces, hence heat is generated.
Thus heat is carried by the chip which increases temperature
of the chip and remaining is transferred to the tool and
coolant
This area is called as secondary deformation zone,
The heat generated is 15-25% of the total heat produced.
Regions of heat generation in Metal cutting:
It is shown in Fig.

Tool-workpiece interface
This source of haet generation is due to friction between tool
flank and workpiece.
The heat generated is 10% of the total heat produced.
 FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT GENERATION

 Workpiece and tool material

 Cutting tool variables like speed, feed, and depth of
cut
 Tool geometry
 Cutting fluid, if used
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
Measurement of tool tip temperature:
Infrared photography,
thermocouples,
radiation pyrometers and
indirect calorimetric techniques have been used.
The most successful and commonly used technique is
the tool- work thermocouple.
In this the emf developed at the junction between w/p
and tool is taken as a measurement of temperature.
The schematic of the arrangement is shown in Fig.
Tool – work thermocouple
It consists of a special work-holding and tool-holding
devices.
Work and tool are held rigidly using insulated supports.
Rotating work is connected to a suitable rotating conductor
which is immersed in a mercury bath.
The mercury bath and tool are connected through a
potentiometer.
The potentiometer indicates the emf generated in cutting
operation which is calibrated in terms of temperature.
Temperature indicated is the temperature at the tool-chip
interface.
The emf generated depends on the work material, tool,
cutting conditions like speed, feed and depth of cut.
The main limitation of this is it does not give any indication
of temperature distribution along the rake tool face.
UP MILLING (CONVENTIONAL)

The work piece is fed opposite to the direction of the rotating cutter.
Chips are progressively thicker.
Since the cutting forces are directed upwards it tends to lift the work piece.
Gives poor surface finish. Used for hard materials.
 DOWN MILLING (CLIMB)

The work piece fed in the direction of the rotating cutter.

Chips are progressively thinner.
Cutting forces are directed downwards, which keep the work piece pressed to
the table.
Gives good surface finish. Used for soft materials and finishing operations.
COMPARISION BETWEEN UP MILLING AND
DOWN MILLING
UP MILLING
1)In up milling the workpiece
is fed in the direction
opposite to that of the
rotating cutter.
2)The thickness of chip is
minimum at the beginning of
cut and reaches to a
maximum when the cut ends.
DOWN MILLING
1)In down milling the
workpiece is fed in the same
direction as that of the
rotating cutter.
2)The thickness of chip is
maximum at the beginning of
cut and reaches to the
minimum when the cut ends.
COMPARISION BETWEEN UP MILLING AND
DOWN
UPMILLING
MILLING DOWN MILLING
3)In up milling cutting force 3)The down cutting force is
is directed upwards. This directed upwards, and this
tends to lift the workpiece tends keep the workpiece
from the table. Hence the firmly on the work table
greater clamping force for the thereby permitting lesser
workpiece becomes clamping forces.
necessary.
4)During up milling chip gets 4)In down milling chip do not
accumulated at cutting zone. interfere with the rotating
This chip interfere with the cutter since they disposed
rotating cutter thereby easily by the cutter. Hence
impairing the surface finish there is no damage of
on the work surface. workpiece surface finish.
COMPARISION BETWEEN UP MILLING AND
DOWN MILLING DOWN MILLING
UP MILLING
5)In up milling it is difficult
for efficient circulation of
coolant. The cutter rotating
in upward direction carries
away the coolant from the
cutting zone.
6)Up milling is preferred for
rough cuts, especially for
castings and forgings,
because this method enables
the cutter to dig – in and start
the cut below the hard upper
5)In down milling the coolant
can easily reach the cutting
zone. Hence efficient cooling
of the tool and workpiece can
be achieved.
6)Down milling produces
better surface finish because
there is no dig – in of the
cutter. It is particularly used
for finishing operations and
small work like cutting slots,
Mechanics of drilling process
 Drilling is most commonly use process.
 However, it is still difficult to give exact analysis for the
torque and thrust in drilling
 Several researcher found empirical relationship for
thrust and torque in drilling applicable to different
work materials, drill geometry and drilling conditions.
 In fact, the thrust and torque have been expressed in
exponential form in terms of drill feed, drill diameter
and web thickness
 The general functions are of the type given below
 F (Thrust) = C1 fx1 (B.D+W/D)y1
 M (Torque) = C2 fx2 Dy2

Where
D-Drill diameter, f- drill feed
 W- web thickness, B, C1&C2 - The coefficient,
 x1,x2,y1,y2- constants for work material
 ferrous materials
 0.2% of carbon steel

 F=242.3*103 f0.87 (D/127 +W/D) 2.12 N

 M = 0.7 f0.78 D1.8 N-m

 For cast iron

 F=67.4*103 f0.87 (D/127 +W/D) 1.9 N
 M = 0.292 f0.6 D1.7 N-m
 For non-ferrous materials
 Aluminum
 F=196.2 f1.1 D1.2 N
 M = 0.1265 f0.83 D1.9 N-m
 For brass
 F=174 f0.6 D N
 M = 0.167 f0.72 D1.9 N-m
 Determine thrust and torque required for drilling
20mm diameter holes in aluminium plates of 25mm
thickness. The feed is set at 0.15 mm/rev and take a
cutting speed of 40m/min.
 F=885.84 N
 M=7.762 N-m
 Find thrust force, torque and power required to drill CI
work piece with standard drill of 12mm diameter. The
feed is set at 0.2 mm/rev. and rotational speed at
300rpm.
 F=1069.8 N
 M= 7.6 N-m
 P=238.76 W