Learning Goals

• Compare the Bohr and quantum

mechanical models of the atom.
• Explain the impact of de Broglie’s wave
particle duality and the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle on the current view
of electrons in atoms.
• Identify the relationships among the
atom’s energy levels, sublevels, and
atomic orbitals.
Much of our current
understanding of
atomic structure
comes from the
study of light.
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Figure 06.01Figure 06.01

Copyright McGraw-Hill 2009 4

 When matter interacts with
light, it absorbs the energy and
molecular changes occur. It cause
the electrons of the molecule to
jump from a lower energy level to a
higher energy level.
The type of molecular change
that may occur will depend on the
type of radiation that has been
absorbed.
In 1900 Max Planck
proposed that energy can
be either released or
absorbed by atoms only in
discrete minimum sized
packets he called quanta.
In 1905 Albert Einstein used
Planck's "quantum theory“. He
propose that light striking the
surface of a metal is behaving
not like a wave, but as if it were
a stream of tiny energy packets,
called photons, acting like
particles.
 Wave / Particle Duality
• Albert Einstein’s photoelectric effect experiment
showed certain light waves release metal e-
– Light is both a wave and a particle (photon)
According to
Einstein's theory,
light has dual nature;
1. wave property
2. particle property
• Einstein’s theory of light’s dual
nature accounted for several
unexplainable phenomena, but it
did not explain why atomic emission
spectra of elements were
discontinuous.
• In 1913, Niels Bohr, a Danish
physicist working in Rutherford’s
laboratory, proposed a quantum
model for the hydrogen atom that
seemed to answer this question.
–This model correctly predicted
the frequency lines in hydrogen’s
atomic emission spectrum.
Bohr Model
• According to Bohr’s
atomic model, electrons
move in definite orbits
around the nucleus,
much like planets circle
the sun.
• These orbits, or energy
levels, or quanta, are
located at certain
distances from the
nucleus.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• Bohr suggested that an electron
moves around the nucleus only in
certain allowed circular orbits.
 Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• Each orbit was given a
number, called the quantum
number.
–Bohr orbits are like steps
of a ladder, each at a
specific distance from the
nucleus and each at a
specific energy.
 Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• Hydrogen’s single electron is in the
n = 1 orbit when it is in the ground state.
– When energy is added, the electron moves
to the n = 2 orbit.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• The lowest allowable energy
state of an atom is called its
ground state.
• When an atom gains energy, it
is in an excited state.
Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• The electron releases energy as it
falls back towards the ground state.
 Bohr’s Model of the Atom
• Bohr’s model explained the
hydrogen’s spectral lines, but
failed to explain any other
element’s lines.
• For this and other reasons, the
Bohr model was replaced with a
more sophisticated model called
the quantum-mechanical or wave-
mechanical model.
Quantum Mechanical Model
• In 1924 Louis de Broglie hypothesized
that particles, including electrons,
could also have wavelike behaviors.
–Electrons do not behave like
particles flying through space.
• We cannot, in general, describe their
exact paths.
 Quantum Mechanics
Scientists yearned to understand
exactly where electrons are in an
atom.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
mathematically described the
position and velocity of an
electron.
Copyright McGraw-Hill 2009 20
Werner Heisenberg
proposed
that the dual nature of
matter
places a limitation on
how precisely one can
know both the position
and the momentum of
any object.
Heisenberg's uncertainty
principle states that it is
impossible to know both
the exact momentum of
an electron and its
exact location
in space.
His work began a new
way of dealing with
subatomic particles,
known as
quantum mechanics.
Quantum Mechanical Model
• The only quantity that can
be known is the probability
for an electron to occupy a
certain region around the
nucleus.
In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger
proposed an equation,known as
Schrodinger's Wave Equation,
that incorporates both the...

wave-like behavior and the

particle-like behavior of the
electron.
 Quantum Mechanics
• Erwin Schrodinger
–Energy levels/shells are really wave
regions
Quantum Mechanical Model
• Schrödinger treated electrons
as waves in a model called the
quantum mechanical model of
the atom.
–Schrödinger’s equation applied
equally well to elements other than
hydrogen (unlike Bohr’s model).
Quantum Mechanical Model
• The quantum mechanical model
makes no attempt to predict the
path of an electron around the
nucleus.
–Bohr orbits were replaced with
quantum-mechanical orbitals.
Quantum Mechanical Model

• Orbitals are different from

orbits in that they represent
probability maps that show a
statistical distribution of
where the electron is likely to
be found.
Today's atomic theory
uses 4 Quantum numbers
to describe the
electrons in
an atom.
Quantum numbers state
the probability of finding
an electron in a
certain location.
This probability can be
shown graphically with an
electron density diagram.
 The Principal
Quantum Number - n

n describes the electron

energy level.
 Quantum Numbers
• The principal quantum
number has the
symbol n.
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ......
(“shells” = K, L, M, N, ....) 1 2 3

• The electron’s energy

depends principally
on n .
 The Principal
Quantum Number - n
n can have integral value of
1, 2, 3, . . .
The maximum number
of electrons in n is 2n2
The maximum number
of electrons in n is 2n2

Energy level 1 can

have a maximum of
____ electrons.
The maximum number
of electrons in n is 2n2

Energy level 1 can

have a maximum of
2 electrons.
____
The maximum number
of electrons in n is 2n2

Energy level 2 can

have a maximum of
____ electrons.
The maximum number
of electrons in n is 2n2

Energy level 2 can

have a maximum of
8 electrons.
____
 Quantum Numbers
• The angular momentum quantum
number has the symbol .
 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .......(n-1)
 = s, p, d, f, g, h, .......(n-1)
•  tells us the shape of the orbitals.
• These orbitals are the volume
around the atom that the electrons
occupy 90-95% of the time.
 The Angular
Quantum Number - l
- l can have integral values
from 0 to n-1
- l describes the shape of
The orbital.
 The Angular
Quantum Number - l

Each electron energy

level n, has n sublevels.
Each electron energy
level n, has n sublevels.

Energy level 1 has

____ sublevels.
Each electron energy
level n, has n sublevels.

Energy level 1 has

1 sublevels.
____
Each electron energy
level n, has n sublevels.

Energy level 2 has

____ sublevels.
Each electron energy
level n, has n sublevels.

Energy level 2 has

2 sublevels.
____
 The Angular
Quantum Number - l

Sublevels in the known

elements are represented
by the letters s, p, d, and f.
 The Magnetic
Quantum Number - m
- It can have integral values
bet +l to -l
m describes the orientation of
the orbital in space.
 The Magnetic
Quantum Number - m

s sublevel = 1 orbital
p sublevel = 3 orbitals
d sublevel = 5 orbitals
f sublevel = 7 orbitals
 The Magnetic
Quantum Number - m

Each orbital can hold

a maximum of 2 electrons.
 The Spin
Quantum Number - s

s describes the spin

of the electron.
 The Spin
Quantum Number - s

Electrons in the same

orbital must have
opposite spins.
 The Spin
Quantum Number - s

Possible spins are

1
clockwise, + /2, and
1
counterclockwise, - /2.
 Spin quantum number effects:
–Every orbital can hold up to two
electrons.
• Consequence of the Pauli Exclusion
Principle.
–The two electrons are designated as
having one spin up and one spin
down
• Spin describes the direction of the
electron’s magnetic fields.
 Re-Cap: Quantum Numbers
• PRINCIPAL: n energy level, distance
from nucleus (1, 2, 3, 4…)

• ANGULAR MOMENTUM: l shape

(s = 0, p = 1, d = 2, f = 3)

• MAGNETIC: ml spatial orientation

(0 for s; -1, 0, +1 for p; -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 for d, etc.)

• SPIN: ms spin (+1/2 or -1/2)

 Quantum Numbers
Which of the following are possible
sets of quantum numbers?
a) 1, 1, 0, +1/2
b) 2, 0, 0, +1/2
c) 3, 2, 2, 1/2

56
 Atomic Orbitals
• s, p, d, f
• Atomic orbitals are regions of
space where the probability of
finding an electron about an
atom is highest.
 Atomic Orbitals

“Shapes” of atomic orbitals

• “s” orbital - spherical in shape
• “p” orbitals - two lobes on opposite
sides of the nucleus
• “d” orbitals - more variations of lobes
• “f” orbitals - complex shapes

58
 Atomic Orbitals
• s orbital:
 s orbitals
s orbitals are spherically symmetric

For every s
orbital:
= 0 and ml = 0

The only thing that

changes for s
orbitals is n.
Three
dimensional
depictions of
electron
distribution
 p orbitals
• p orbital properties:
– The first p orbitals appear in the n = 2 shell.

• p orbitals are peanut or dumbbell shaped

• There are 3 p orbitals per n level.

– The three orbitals are named px, py, pz.
 = 1 for all p orbitals.
m = -1,0,+1 (designate the three
orientations)
• p orbital:
• p orbitals are peanut or
dumbbell shaped.
l=1

m = -1,0,+1
 d orbital
The first d orbitals appear in the n = 3 shell.
The five d orbitals have two different shapes:
– 4 are clover leaf shaped.
– 1 is peanut shaped with a doughnut around it.
– The orbitals lie directly on the Cartesian axes
or are rotated 45o from the axes.
There are 5 d orbitals per n level.
They have an  = 2.
–m = -2,-1,0,+1,+2 (5 values of m )
• d orbitall:
=2
m = -2,-1, 0,+1,+2
 f orbital
The first f orbitals appear in the n = 4 shell.
• The f orbitals have the most complex shapes.
• There are seven f orbitals per n level.
– The f orbitals have complicated names.
– They have an  = 3
– m = -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2, +3 7 values
 f orbital
=3 m = -3,-2,-1,0,+1,+2, +3 7 values
f orbital
 s, p
and d

s and p

only s
Wolfgang Pauli established
the Pauli Exclusion Principle,
which states that no two
electrons in an atom
can have the
same set of four
quantum numbers.
Simply stated: electrons will
occupy orbitals singly,
if possible, and
single electrons in
the same subshell
will all have the
same spin.
Friedrich Hund
Hund's rule states that for
orbitals in the same sublevel,
the lowest energy is
attained when the
number of electrons
with the same spin
is maximized.
Friedrich Hund
• The Aufbau Principle describes the electron
filling order in atoms.
 paired

parallel spins
The orbital diagram
for sodium is:
Half arrows pointing up represent
electrons with spin = + 1/2
Half arrows pointing down
represent electrons
with spin = - 1/2
The spin of an electron
is often referred to as
either spin up or
spin down.
Electrons are said to
be paired when they
are in the same orbital.
An unpaired electron
is one not accompanied
by a partner of opposite
spin.
THE END