COMPONENTS &

CHARACTERISTIC
OF VERBAL CODES
Verbal Codes – refers to spoken or
written languages of humankind.

Components of Human Language:

1. Sound
2. structure
3. meaning
Lustig and Koester (2013) identified 5
intellectual components of language:
1. Phonology
2. Morphology
3. Syntax
4. Semantics
5. Pragmatics
Phonology – explores how sound are
organized in a language.
Phoneme is the smallest sound
unit of a language.
Phonological rules determine how
sound are combined to form words.
Ex. The phoneme {k} & {au} can be
arranged to form the word “cow” in
English .
Morphology – combination of basic units
of meaning, morpheme to create words.
Ex. Word “happy” consist of one (1)
morpheme meaning to feel cheerful
Word “unhappy” contains two (2)
morphemes: “happy “ & the prefix “un”
meaning “not” or the opposite. Used
together, it refers to feeling akin to
“sadness”.
Morphemes & the ways in w/c they are
combined, differs across culture.
Syntax – concerns the grammatical &
structural rules of language. We combine
words into sentences according to
grammatical rules to communicate.
 In English & other languages of the Indo
European family, tenses of a verb where
changed by adding suffix & prefix or
changing the morpheme.
 In German, preposition are often placed
at the end of the sentence.
 In French, preposition where place before
noun or noun phrase.
 Every language has a set of grammatical
rules that govern the sequencing f words.
Semantics – study of meaning of words,
the relationship between words & things
to which they refer.
2 types of meaning:
 Denotation – literal meaning of words
or object & basically descriptive
- meaning we found in the dictionary
 Connotation – deals with cultural meaning
that become attached to a word or object.
Language conveys meaning via its
components, arranged according to rules,
morphemes combine with one another to
produce the meaning of words, and words
in turns combine to form sentences that
yield additional meaning.
The characteristic of Verbal Codes:
Although language differ, there are some
characteristics shared by all of them.
Neuliep (2012) identified 5 common
characteristics:
1. All language have some way of naming
objects, place or things
2. All languages have a way of naming action
3. All language have a way of stating the
negative, constructing, interrogative, &
differentiating between singular or plural.
4. All language have a systematic set of
sounds, combined, with a set of rules for
the sole purpose of creating meaning
and communicating without no natural
or inherent relationship between the
sounds & their accompanying alphabet;
5. All language have a set of formal
grammatical rules for combining sound
and sequencing words to create
meaning.
Language, Culture & Discourse:

According to Dan Slobin(2000:100)

“Children in all nations seem to learn
their native language in much the same
way. Despite the diversity of tongues,
there are linguistic universals that seem
to rest upon the development universals
of the humankind:”.
Language acquisition by Nativist versus
Constructivist (Hoff, 2001)
1. Noam Chomsky’s universal grammar:
Chomsky (1975) claims that all human
language share a universal grammar that is
innate in the human species & culturally
invariant. Nativist, such as Chomsky argues
that language acquisition involves triggering
these models so that only the details of a
particular language must be learned
(Chomsky, 1980). Chomsky says that
language is a s much as part of the human
brain as the thumb is a part of a human
hand.
2. Constructivist – opposed the idea that
there is a universal grammar. They argue
that language acquisition involves
unveiling the patterns of language, & thus
requires interaction with a structured
environment (Piaget, 1977).
3. Nominalist – argue that “our
perception of external reality is shaped
not by language but by material reality.
4. Relativist – believe that our language
are detremines our ideas, thought
patterns, & perception of reality.
5. Sapir & Whorf – claims that a cultural
system is embodied in the language of
the people who speaks the language.
This cultural frameworks shapes the
thoughts of the language’s speakers. We
think in the world and the meaning of
our language, which in turn is an
expression of our culture.
Sapir & Whorf two (2) version of
hypothesis:
1. Strong version or linguistic
determinism – posits that the language
one speaks determine one’s perception of
reality.
2. Weak version or Linguistic Relativity
– makes the claim that native language
exerts an influence over one’s perception
of reality.
The differences among languages are thus
reflected in the different world views of
their speakers.
Discourse:
Discourse refers not only to speech and
writing, but embraces all systems of
signification (Laclau, 2006:106).
Discourse not only represents the worlds as
it is (or rather is seen to be), they are also
projective, imaginary, representing possible
worlds which are different from the actual
world, & tied into project to change the
world in a particular discussion
(Fairelough, 2003:124).
Discourse:

Scollon, Scollon & Jones (2012) propose

that we have been formally or informally
socialized into various discourse system.
Discourse system contain ideas and beliefs
about the world, conventional way of
teaching other people, ways of
communicating using various kind of text,
media and languages & methods of learning
how to use these other tools (Scollon et
al. 2012:8).
Cultural Variation in Verbal Communication:

Cultural variation in verbal communication

is reflected in language use & translation.
(Clark, Eschholz & Rosa, 1998) states that
people from different social and cultural
groups may experience similar events;
however, they are vast different in the
ways in which they use language to
interpret their experiences.
Communication Styles & Cultures:
Communication style – refers to how language is
used to communicate meaning.
1. Direct/Indirect communication style –
direct communication style is one in w/c the
speaker’s need, wants, devices, and intention are
explicitly communicated. Conversely, an indirect
communication style is one in w/c the
speaker’s true intention or needs are only implied
or hinted at during the conversation.
Research indicates that indirect style are common to
be used in Asian culture such as in Japan, China,
South Korea & Hongkong where harmony is
considered important for maintaining good
personal relationship. Western cultures generally
prefer a direct communication style.
Example:
Conversation bet. Nigerian girl and an
American man who ask a favor on the
girl. The girl who have another
commitment replied so many statement
instead of saying directly “Sorry I cannot
do it” for the Nigerian girl knew that it
is not polite to say “no” to a friend.
In American culture, if they cannot fulfill
your request or favor, they would simply
say “Sorry, I can’t do it”.
2. Elaborate/Succint Communication Style – this
dimension is concerned with the quantity of talk a
culture values, & reflects a culture’s attitudes
towards talk and silence (Martin & Nakayama,
2001).
Elaborate style involves the use of rich , expressive
and embellished language in everyday conversation.
Ex. Rather than simply saying that someone is thin, a
comment such as “she is so thin that she can walk
between raindrops without getting wet”
embellishes & colours the statement.
Succinct style simple assertions & even silence are
valued.
3. Personal/Contextual Communication Style
– This dimension is concerned with the extent
to which the speaker emphasizes the self as
opposed to his or her rule. Gudykunts & Ting-
Toomey (1988) define personal style as one
that amplifies the individual identity of the
speaker. This style is often used in individualistic
culture, w/c emphasizes individual goals over
those of the group. It is a person-centered
communication style which is reflected by the
use of the Pronoun “I”. On the other hand,
Contextual Communication style is
oriented by status & role. Oftne seen in
collectivistic cultures where one’s role identity &
status are highlighted & respect to people of
different rank or social status is concerned.
4. Instrumental/Affective Communication
Style
Instrumental style is goal-oriented & sender
focused. The speaker uses communication to
achieve an outcome.
Affective communication style is receiver-
focused & process-oriented (Gudykunst and
Ting-Toomy, 1988).
In affective style, people are more conscious of the
other people’s reaction, & attempts to sense
meaning by situational cues. An instrumental
style, on the other hand, is often seen in business
& other professional contexts, particularly in
Western cultures where verbal explicitness is
valued.
Gender & Communication
Robin Lakoff (1975) argues that women & men speak
differently because boys & girls are socialized separately.
Deborah Tannen (1990) a discourse analyst claims that men
and women express themselves differently because they
have different cultures.
Men usually used verbal communication to report about the
world.
A report is a specific way to communicate in order to maintain
independence & status in a hierarchical social order.
Women, however, use verbal communication for rapport to
establish a human connection. A rapport is a way of
establishing connections & negotiating relationships.
According to Mohanty, 2003 women are talkers and men ar
doers. On the other hand, academic research shows that
men tend to speak more often in public, & they tend to
speak longer in meetings (Tannen, 1994).
Gender & Communication
Gender differences in verbal communication are a
complex & controversial combination of biological
differences and socialization. Many linguists argues
that language defines gender, “businessmen, chairman,
& mankind” in which there is genetic male
implication.
Women are often defined by appearance and
relationships, the use of titles “Ms. & Mrs. designates
a woman’s marital status. On the other hand, men
are commonly defined by activities, accomplishments
or positions. In general, it is gender-studies scholars
who explores issues of sexuality, power, language and
marginalized populations & point to the increasingly
complex & murky binary opposition between male &
female language.
Translation & Interpretation

Translation refers to the process of

converting a source text, either spoken
or written, into different language.
Interpretation refers to the process of
verbally expressing what is said in
another language.
Language & Identity
Language defines our identities, as we use it
to mark our social, ethnic, and national
boundaries. As a Czech proverb goes “
Learn a new language & get a new
identity”.
Summary:
 Language comprises a set of symbols shared by a
community to communicate meanings & experiences.
Children learn the rules of their language and are
productive & creative in their language acquisition.
 The language we speak influences how we perceive &
categorize the world around us. The sapir-whorf hypothesis
highlights the close connection between language, thought
and culture.
 Communication styles can be broadly categorized along
four dimensions: direct/indirect, elaborate/succint,
personal/contextual, & instrumental/affective.
 Gender differences are reflected in the use of language.
 Language is an integral part of our personal, social, ethnic,
and national identities, because the language we speaks
marks our cultural & social boundaries.