DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF

BREAKWATERS

Dr. S. NEELAMANI
CMP/ELSRC
KISR
KUWAIT

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 SITE PLANNING

PROJECT MARINE SURVEY

MANAGEMENT
CONSTRUCTION

DESIGN ENGINEERING ANALYSIS

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
a. Layout of the breakwater

b. Influence on surrounding topography

c. Influence on water ecology

d. Design conditions

e. Structural type of breakwater

f. Design method

g. Execution method

h. Construction cost 22
LAYOUT OF BREAKWATERS
a. Environmental conditions

b. Calmness in the Harbor

c. Ease of Ship maneuverability

d. Water quality in the harbour

e. Construction and maintenance cost

f. Future plans of the port and harbor

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DESIGN CONDITIONS
a. Calmness in the harbor

b. Winds

c. Tidal levels

d. Waves

e. Water depth and sea bottom conditions

f. Others

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TYPES OF BREAKWATERS

a. Rubble mound Breakwaters

b. Vertical breakwaters

c. Composite Breakwaters (Horizontally

composite Vertically Composite)

d. Berm Breakwater

e. Special type of breakwaters.

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 Wave screen

Armour Layer

SWL

Sea side
Harbour side

Core Inner layers

Toe

Bedding layer

Schematic section of a mound breakwater

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VERTICAL BREAKWATER
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Rubble Mound

HORIZONTAL COMPOSITE BREAKWTER

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VERTICALLY COMPOSITE BREAKWATER

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 Wave screen

SWL

Sea side
Harbour side BERM

Core

Bedding layer

Schematic section of a mound breakwater

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Breakwater resting on piles
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SELECTION OF BREAKWTER TYPE
a. Layout of breakwaters

b. Environmental conditions

c. Utilisation conditions

d. Construction conditions

e. Construction cost

f. Construction period

g. Importance of breakwaters

h. Availability of construction materials

i. Maintenance 35
RUBBLE MOUND BREAKWATER

Hudson Formula

W = wr H3 / [ KD (Sr–1)3 cot  ]

W : The stable weight of the armor stone

wr : unit weight of armor unit (N/m3)
H : Design wave height at the structure (m)
KD : Stability Coefficient (Varies with the shape of the
armor units, roughness of the armor unit surface,
sharpness of edges, degree of interlocking obtained
in placement) (Refer Table 1)
Sr : Specific gravity of the armor unit,
relative to the water at
the structure (wr / ww)
Ww : Unit weight of water (N/m3)
 : Angle of structure slope measured
from horizontal in Degrees
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Table 1. Suggested KD values for use in determining armor unit weight
(SPM)
No- Damage Criteria and Minor Overtopping
Armor Units Placement Structure Trunk Structure Head Slope
III
N
KD II KD
BW NBW BW NBW Cot 
QUARRYSTONE
Smooth rounded 2 Random 1.2 2.4 1.1 1.9 1.5- 3
Smooth rounded >3 Random 1.6 3.2 1.4 2.3 V
Rough angular 1 Random IV 2.9 IV 2.3 V
IV

Rough Angular 2 Random 2.0 4.0 1.9 3.2 1.5

1.6 2.8 2.0
1.3 2.3 3.0
Rough Angular >3 Random 2.2 4.5 2.1 4.2 V
Rough Angular 2 Special VI 5.8 7.0 5.3 6.4 V
Parallelepiped VII 2 Special I 7.0 – 8.5 – 24.0 --- ---
20.0

TETRAPOD & 2 Random 7.0 8.0 5.0 6.0 1.5

QUADRIPOD 4.5 5.5 2.0
3.5 4.0 3.0

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 TRIBAR 2 Random 9.0 10.0 8.3 9.0 1.5
7.8 8.5 2.0
6.0 6.5 3.0
DOLOS 2 Random 15.8 VIII 31.8 VIII 8.0 16.0 2.0 IX
7.0 14.0 3.0
MODIFIED 2 Random 6.5 7.5 --- 5.0 V
CUBE
HEXAPOD 2 Random 8.0 9.5 5.0 7.0 V
TOSKANE 2 Random 11.0 22.0 --- --- V

TRIBAR 1 Uniform 12.0 15.0 7.5 9.5 V

QUARRY --- Random 2.2 2.5 --- ---

STONE
((KRR)
Graded
Angular
BW : Breaking Wave
NBW : Non Breaking Wave 38
I : These KD values are unsupported by test
results and are only provided for preliminary
design purposes.

II : Applicable for slopes ranging from 1:1.5 to

1:5.

III : n is the number of units comprising the

thickness of the armor layer

IV : The use of single layer of quarry stone armor

units is not recommended for structures
subject to breaking waves and may be used
only under special conditions for nonbreaking
wave actions. When it is used, the stone
should be carefully placed.
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V : Until more information is available on the
variation of KD value with slope, the use of
KD should be limited to slopes ranging from
1:1.5 to 1:3.

VI : Special placement with long axis of stone

placed perpendicular to structure face.

VII : Parallelepiped-shaped stone: Long slab-like

stone with the long dimension about 3 times
the shortest dimension

VIII : Refers to no-damage criteria

(<5%displacement, rocking etc.). If no
rocking is desired (<2%), reduce KD by 50%.

IX : Stability of dolosse on slopes steeper than 1:2

should be substantiated by site-specific model tests.
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The stability coefficient KD accounts for

a. Shape of armor units

b. Number of units comprising the thickness of

armour layer

c. Manner of placing armor units

d. Surface roughness and sharpness of edges of armor units

(Degree of interlocking of armor units)

e. Type of waves attacking the structure (Breaking or Non-

breaking)

f. Part of structure (Trunk or Head)

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g. Angle of incidence of wave attack

h. Model scale (Reynolds number)

i. Distance below SWL that the armor units

extend down the face slope

j. Size and porosity of underlayer material

k. Core height relative to SWL

l. Crown height relative to SWL

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m. Crown type (Concrete cap or armor units
Placed over the crown and extending down
the back slope)

n. Crown height above SWL relative to wave

height

o. Crest width.

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DESIGN WAVE HEIGHT BASED ON DAMAGE CRITERIA
Table 2. H/HD=0 as a function of cover-layer damage and type of armor unit I.

Damage (D) in Percent

Unit 0 - 5 5 -10 10-15 15-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Quarrystone H/HD=0 1.00 1.08 1.14 1.20 1.29 1.41 1.54
(Smooth)
Quarrystone H/HD=0 1.00 1.08 1.19 1.27 1.37 1.47 1.56II
(Rough)
Tetrapods & H/HD=0 1.00 1.09 1.17III 1.24III 1.32III 1.41III 1.50III
Quadripods
Tribar H/HD=0 1.00 1.11 1.25III 1.36III 1.50III 1.59III 1.64III

Dolos H/HD=0 1.00 1.10 1.14III 1.17III 1.20III 1.24III 1.27III

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H : Wave height corresponding to
damage D

HD=0 : Wave height corresponding to 0 to

5% damage, refered as no- damage
condition.

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ARTIFICIAL CONCRETE ARMOR UNITS

Tetrapod Quadripod Dolos

Tribar Toskane Akman

Modified Cube Hexapod Bipod

Cube Sta-Bar Sta-Pod

Hollow Tetrahedron Stolk Cube Cob

Svee Block Interlocking H-Block Stabit

Hollow Square Pelican Stool Tripod

Gassho block Grobbelaar block Tri-Long

Hexaleg Block Tetrahedron (Solid) Accropod

Tetrahedron N-Shaped block

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(Perforated)
Tetrapod
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Tribar 49
Tribar
50
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Hollow Cube
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 ACCROPOD
CUBE

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DOLOS

TOSKANE

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DESIGN OF STRUCTURE CROSS SECTION

Breakwater exposed to wave action on one side

(Example: Breakwaters for Harbors)

Breakwater exposed to wave action on both sides

(Example: Groins)

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 Wave screen

Armour Layer

SWL

Sea side
Harbour side

Core Inner layers

Toe

Bedding layer

Schematic section of a mound breakwater

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 Table.3. Rock-size gradation as a percent of the rock size

LAYER ROCK SIZE GRADATION (%)

Primary Cover W 75 to 125

Layer
Secondary Cover W/2 and W/15 75 to 125
Layer

First Underlayer W/10 and W/300 70 to 130

Second Underlayer W/200 50 to 150

Core and Bedding W/4000 to W/6000 30 to 170

Layer

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Filter design criteria

D15 (Cover)  5 D85 (Under)

Where

D15 (Cover) : The diameter exceeded by the

coarsest 85% of the layer
immediately above the underlayer

D85 (Under) : The diameter exceeded by the

coarsest 15% of the underlayer.

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DESIGN ANALYSIS

a. Crest elevation and width

b. Concrete cap for rubble mound structures
c. Thickness of armor layer and underlayers and
number of armor units
d. Bottom elevation of primary cover layer
e. Toe berm for cover layer stability

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f. Structure head and lee side cover layer
g. Secondary cover layer
h. Underlayers
i. Bedding layer and filter blanket layer
j. Scour protection at toe
k. Toe berm for foundation stability.

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 Table 4. Layer Coefficient and Porosity for various
armor units

Armor n Place- Layer Porosity

Unit ment Coefft (P) in %
k
Quarrystone 2 Random 1.02 38
(Smooth)
Quarrystone 2 Random 1.15 37
(Rough)
Quarrystone >3 Random 1.10 40
(Rough)

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Armor Unit n Placement Layer Porosity
Coefft (P) in %
k
Cube 2 Random 1.10 47
(modified)
Tetrapod 2 Random 1.04 50
Quadripod 2 Random 0.95 49

Hexapod 2 Random 1.15 47

Tribar 2 Random 1.02 54

Dolos 2 Random 1.00 63

Tribar 1 Uniform 1.13 47

Quarrystone graded Random ---- 37

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THICKNESS OF ARMOUR LAYER AND UNDERLAYERS
AND No. OF ARMOUR UNITS

1/3
r = n k (W/wr )

r : Average layer thickness in m

n : No. of quarry stone or concrete armor units in
thickness
comprising the cover layer
k : layer coefficient (Refer Table 4)
W : Mass of individual armor unit, Tons
3
wr : Mass density in Ton/m

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PLACING DENSITY
Nr / A = n k (1-P/100) (wr /W) 2/3

Nr : Required no. of individual armor units for a

given surface area

A : Surface Area

P : Average porosity of the cover layer in

percent (Refer Table.4)

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The thickness, r of a layer should be greatest
of the following three aspects:

i. r = 0.30 m
ii.
r = 2.0 (W50 /wr) 1/3

iii. r = 1.25 (Wmax /wr) 1/3

W50 is the weight of 50% size in the gradation

Wmax is the heaviest stone in the gradation

The layer thickness should be increased by

50% for riprap placed underwater.
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BOTTOM ELEVATION OF PRIMARY
COVER LAYER
If d > 1.5 H
Armor units in the cover layer should be extended
downslope to an elevation below minimum SWL
equal to the design wave height.

If d < 1.5 H

Armor units should be extended to the bottom.

For revetments in shallow water, the primary

cover layer should be extended seaward of the
structure toe on the natural bottom slope as scour
protection. 68
TOE BERM FOR COVER LAYER
STABILITY
Weight of the toe berm stones : W/10.
Minimum width : 3r
Minimum height : 2r

where r= k (W/wr ) 1/3

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DESIGN EXAMPLE
A harbor consists of two breakwaters. The main
breakwater is 2500 m long and the water depth
varies from 0.0 m to 10.0 m.
Design the breakwater trunk portion at a section
where the DESIGN water depth, d is 5.0 m and in
another section, where it is 8.0 m. Consider
nonbreaking wave of height, H = 3.0 m at d=5.0 m
and H=5.0 m at d=8.0 m, which corresponds to no
damage criteria (i.e. 0 to 5% damage). Design the
breakwater by considering Quarrystone as Armor
unit at d=5.0 m and Tetrapod as armor unit,
where d=8.0 m. Consider the breakwater for
seaward exposure with zero-to-moderate
overtopping condition. The unit weight of
quarrystone is 22 kilonewtons and that of concrete
is 23.5 kilonewtons. 70
I. BREAKWATER DESIGN AT d=5.0
m WITH QUARRYSTONE AS
ARMOR UNIT
WEIGHT OF ARMOR UNIT, W

W = wr H3 / (KD (Sr–1)3 cot )

wr : 22 kN/m3
H : 3.0 m
KD : 2.4)
Sr : (wr / ww = 2.2)
Ww : 10 kN/m3
 : (Take 1V : 2H)

W = 22 X 3.03 / (2.4 (2.2–1)3 X 2)

= 71.61 kN say 70 kN
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WEIGHT OF THE FIRST UNDERLAYER AND
SECONDARY COVER LAYER
= W/10 to W/15
= 7.0 to 4.67 kN

WEIGHT OF CORE AND BEDDING LAYER

= W/200 to W/6000
= 0.35 to 0.0117 kN.

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CREST ELEVATION

Select the crest elevation such that overtopping of water is

allowed only 2% of the time during a storm.

Ru2% /Hs = 0.83 p for p < 2

Consider Hs = Maximum wave height / 1.8

= 0.78 X 5.0/1.8
= 2.17 m
p = Surf Similarity parameter
= tan  / (Hs /L0p )1/2
= 0.5/(2.17/100)1/2
= 3.39

As a first approximation, run-up height can be predicted using

the above eqn.

Ru2% = 0.83 X 3.39 X 2.17

= 6.11 m say 6.0 m.

Ie. If the crest elevation of the structure is at +6.0 m, then

only 2% of the waves during a storm will overtop the73
breakwater.
CREST WIDTH

The minimum crest width, B should be equal to the combined

width of three armor units (n=3).

i.e. B = n k (W/wr ) 1/3

n = No. of stones (n=3 is recommended minimum)

k = layer coefficient (1.02 from Table 4)

B = 3.0 X 1.02 X (70/22) 1/3

= 4.5 m

Use crest width of 5.0 m in order to facilitate movements of

machines and trucks during construction.

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ARMOUR LAYER THICKNESS, r

R = n k (W/wr ) 1/3

n = No. of stones (n=2 is recommended)

k = layer coefficient (1.02 from Table 4)

r = 2.0 X 1.02 X (70/22) 1/3

= 3.0 m
W = Weight of armor unit in primary cover layer,
Tons
wr = Unit weight of armor unit, Ton/m3

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TOE BERM FOR COVER LAYER STABILITY

Weight of the stone = W/10

= 70/10
= 7 kN
Width of the toe Berm = 3r,
where r = k (W/wr ) 1/3
= 3 X 0.68
= 2.0 m
Height of the Berm = 2r
= 2 X 0.68
= 1.36 m

UNDERLAYER THICKNESS

Thickness of the underlayer = 2 r,

r = k (W/wr)1/3 with W =7
kN.
= 1.36 m
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CASE II : BREAKWATER DESIGN AT d = 8.0m
WITH TETRAPOD AS ARMOR UNIT.
WEIGHT OF ARMOR UNIT, W

W = wr H3 / (KD (Sr–1)3 cot )

wr : 23.5 kN/m3
H : 5.0 m
KD : 8.0
Sr : (wr / ww = 2.35)
Ww : 10 kN/m3
 : (Take 1V : 2H)

W = 23.5 X 5.03 / (8.0 (2.35–1)3 X 2)

= 74.62 kN say 75 kN

Since the weight of the quarry stone armor layer for H=3.0 m
and weight of the Tetrapod armor layer for H=5.0 m are
almost same, the weight of stones in the other layers can be 77
selected as same as that for d=5.0m.
Ie. WEIGHT OF THE FIRST UNDERLAYER AND
SECONDARY COVER LAYER
= W/10 to W/15
= 7.0 to 4.67 kN

WEIGHT OF CORE AND BEDDING LAYER

= W/200 to W/6000
= 0.35 to 0.0117 kN.

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GRADATIONS

Layer Rock Size (kN) Gradation

(kN)
Primary W = 70 (125% to
Cover Layer 75%)
ie. 87.5 to 52.5
Secondary W/10 to W/15 (130% to
cover layer & = 7.0 to 4.67 70%)
First 9.1 to 3.27
underlayer
Core and W/200 to (170% to
Bedding Layer W/6000 = 0.35 30%)
to 0.0117 0.60 to 0.0035

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CREST ELEVATION

Select the crest elevation such that overtopping of water is

allowed only 2% of the time during a storm.

Ru2% /Hs = 0.83 p for p < 2

Consider Hs = Maximum wave height / 1.8

= 0.78 X 8.0/1.8
= 3.47 m
p = Surf Similarity parameter
= tan  / (Hs /L0p )1/2
= 0.5/(3.47/100)1/2
= 2.68

Run-up height,
Ru2% = 0.83 X 2.68 X 3.47
= 7.73 m say 7.7 m.

Ie. If the crest elevation of the structure is at +7.7 m, then

only 2% of the waves during a storm will overtop the
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breakwater.
CREST WIDTH

The minimum crest width, B should be equal to the combined

width of three armor units (n=3).

i.e. B = n k (W/wr ) 1/3

n = No. of stones (n=3 is recommended minimum)

k = layer coefficient (1.04 from Table 4 for
Tetrapod)

B = 3.0 X 1.04 X (75/23.5) 1/3

= 4.59 m
Use crest width of 5.0 m in order to facilitate movements of
machines and trucks during construction and for continuity of
same width.

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ARMOUR LAYER THICKNESS, r

R = n k (W/wr ) 1/3

n = No. of Tetrapod armor units (n=2 is

recommended)
k = layer coefficient (1.04 from Table 4)

r = 2.0 X 1.04 X (75/23.5) 1/3

= 3.06 m
W = Weight of armor unit in primary cover layer,
Tons
wr = Unit weight of armor unit, Ton/m3

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TOE BERM FOR COVER LAYER STABILITY

Weight of the stone = W/10

= 70/10
= 7 kN
Width of the toe Berm = 3r
where r= k (W/wr ) 1/3
= 3 X 0.68
= 2.0 m
Height of the Berm = 2r
= 2 X 0.68
= 1.36 m

UNDERLAYER THICKNESS

Thickness of the underlayer = 2 r,

where r= k (W/wr ) 1/3 with W = 7 kN.
= 1.36 m
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RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN THE DESIGN OF
RUBBLEMOUND BREAKWATERS

Drawbacks of Hudson Formula

It does not take care of the effects of

a. Wave Period

b. Number of waves (Storm

duration)

c. Armor Grading

d. Spectrum Shape
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e. Groupiness of waves

f. Permeability of the core

g. Damage level

h. Type of wave breaking on the breakwater

(Plunging, Collapsing, Surging)

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Simplified form of Hudson formula
H10 / Dn50 = (KD cot  )1/3

H10 : Average of the highest 10% of the waves

 : Relative mass density ( = a /  - 1)
Dn50 : Nominal diameter ( Dn50 = W50 / a)1/3
KD : Stability coefficient
cot  : Slope angle
a : Mass density of the stone
 : Mass density of water
W50 : 50% value (median) of the mass
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distribution curve
 VAN DER MEER’S FORMULA
Plunging waves
HS / Dn50 (z )0.5 = 6.2 P0.18 (S / N0.5)0.2

Surging waves
HS / Dn50 = 1.0 P -0.13 (S / N0.5)0.2 (cot )0.5 (z) P

HS : Significant wave height at the toe of the

structure
P : Permeability coefficient of the structure
S : Damage level, S = A / Dn502
A : Erosion area (Fig.8)
N : Number of waves (Storm duration)
z : surf similarity parameter,
z = tan  / (2 HS / g Tz 2 )1/2
Tz : Zero up-crossing wave period 87
SLOPE
Cot  between 1.5 to 6.0

WAVE HEIGHT
Significant wave height is used. HS = 4 (m0)1/2

WAVE STEEPNESS
2
The wave steepness 2 HS / g Tz should be between
0.005 to 0.06. Tz = (m0/m2)1/2

PERMEABILITY
P from 0.1 to 0.6

DAMAGE LEVEL
The damage level S is the “Number of cubic stones with
a side of Dn50, eroded around the water level within a
width of one Dn50”.

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START OF DAMAGE

S = 2 for steep slope and S = 3 for mild slope.

The definition of “FILTER LAYER VISIBLE” may be

assumed as failure. Table below gives the lower and
upper damage levels for two-diameter-thick rock slope.

Start of Filter
cot  Damage layer
Visible
1.5 2 8
2.0 2 8
3.0 2 12
4.0 3 17
6.0 3 17
89
STORM DURATION
N from 1000 to 7000.

MASS DENSITY
2000 to 3000 kg / cubic mt.

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EXAMPLE TO ILLUSTRATE THE EFFECT OF S,
Cot , P, N FOR A SELECTED BREAKWATER
ARMOR STONE

GIVEN

Dn50 = 1.0 m
a = 2600 kg/m3
 = 1000 kg/m3
Cot  = 3.0
S = 5 (tolerable damage in 50 years)
P = 0.5 (permeable core)
N = 3000 waves

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 COMMON REASONS FOR BREAKDOWN OF
RUBBLE-MOUND BREAKWATERS

a. Knock-outs by waves
b. Lift-outs (by up-rush, down-rush) usually resulting
from combinations of up-rush and down-rush and
toe velocities in an incident wave.
c. Sliding of armor as a whole due to special wave
trains.
d. Gradual breakdown or failures due to ‘Fatigue’ by
special wave trains and wave concentrations.
e. Undermining of the wave screen or upper solid
structure. 92
f. Destabilization of crown and inner slope due to the
overtopping of water

g. Lift-ups and through-washes in lee-side due to

excessive porosity of the core and/or filter layer

h. Toe erosion at the seaward side especially when water

depth to wave height ratio is less than 2.0

i. Soil failures

j. Soundness of the materials used for construction

k. Poor workmanship 93
CONCLUSIONS

The technology for the design of

rubble mound structures has
developed over the past 50 years.

In HUDSON FORMULA the

selection of stable armor units is
based on wave height, relative mass
density of armor material, stability
coefficient and slope angle of the
breakwater. 94
VAN DER MEER has developed the formulas
based on extensive studies and brought out formulas
with these parameters. Hence Hudson formula can only
be used as a very rough estimate and Van der Meer
formula should be used for the design of rubble mound
structures.

95
This formula does not take care of the effect of
parameters like Wave Period, Number of waves (Storm
duration), Armor Grading, Spectrum Shape,
Groupiness of waves, Permeability of the core, Damage
level and type of wave breaking on the breakwater
(Plunging, Collapsing, Surging).

96
97