Computer Architecture

Ancy Jerald
I st MSc, 2nd sem
Dept of physics
St Xavier's college
Thumba
o CPU
o Main memory unit
o Interconnection of units
o Cache
o Communication between various units
o The instruction format
o Instruction set
o Processor speed
o Multiprocessor systems
o CPU- CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Central processing unit

Control unit Arithmetic logic

unit

Central
Registers
 Processor controls all internal and external
devices and performs arithmetic and logic
operations.
 Operates only binary data(1 s &0s).

ALU

CPU CU

Registers
 A. ALU- Arithmetic / logic unit
1. Arithmetic unit:
Actual computing and carrying out the
arithmetic calculations(at high speed).
2. Logic unit:
logical operation tests three conditions:
1 Equal-to condition
2 less-than condition
3 greater-than condition
B. Registers
Register name functions

Program counter (PC) Keeps the track of next instruction to

be executed.

Instruction register (IR) Holds the instruction to be decoded

by control unit.

Memory address register(MAR) Holds the address of next location in

memory.

Memory buffer register(MBR) Stores data either coming to cpu or

data being transferred by the CPU.

Accumulator (ACC) For storing temporary results and

results produced by arithmetic logic
unit.

Data register (DR) For storing operands and other data.

C. Control unit
 Heart of CPU.
 The four basic operations.
 It controls input output devices and transfer the
data to and from the primary storage.
The control unit repeats a set of four basic
operations:
1 Fetching
2 Decoding
3 Executing
4 Storing
o Main memory unit
The part of computer which holds data and
instructions for processing.
Primary memory is of two types:
RAM
ROM
RAM- Random Access Memory

 provide the required instruction to the

processor.
 volatile in nature

DRAM

RAM

SRAM
ROM- Read Only Memory
 can only be read from any location.
 Stores initial start up instruction and routines
in BIOS.
 Non-volatile
 Firmware
Types:
PROM
EPROM
EEPROM
o INTERCONNECTION OF UNITS
System Bus
 Bus- set of connections between two or more
components , designated to transfer bits of a
word from source to destination.
 multiple paths(lines)
 A bus that connect to all the components
(CPU , Memory & I/O devices).
 System lines are broadly categorised into
three functional groups:
 Data lines
 Address lines
 Control lines
Bus interconnection
o Cache
 cache is a piece of very fast memory, made from
high speed static RAM that reduces the time of
accessing the data.
 catch up with the processor speed

Cache is classified into three levels:

 Level 1 cache(L1)[primary cache]
• Level 2 cache(L2)[secondary cache]
• Level 3 cache(L3)
o Communication Between Various Units
Of a Computer System
To have proper coordination a reliable mean of
communication is essential
Two major communications between the
systems:
 Processor to memory communication
 Processor to I/O devices communication
 Main memory

Address
Data

{
Instruction and date Cache
memory

Address Data

processor

Processor memory communication

Processor to I/O communication
o The instruction format
A computer understands instructions in terms of
0s and 1s
Number bit

1 0 1 1 0 1 0
{
Operand
Opcode
 Instructions are usually divided into
following types:
 Data transfer instruction (registers or external
main memory)
 Arithmetic instructions
 Logical instructions
 Program control instructions
 I/O instructions
 o Instruction cycle
The processor of the system performs the
execution work.
Instruction Function

ADD Perform addition

SUB Perform subtraction

MUL Perform multiplication

MOV Move the contents from one location to

another.

DIV Perform division

LDA Load the contents of the variable.

JMP Jump to the instruction.

ABS Calculate absolute value

• A simple instruction cycle consists of:
o Instruction set
 To create machine language program
 Embedded in the processor( boundaries of
processors instruction set).
Architectures : CISC- complex instruction set
computers
RISC- reduced instruction set
computers
CISC Architecture

Compiler
HL LL lang
lang

 CISC was developed to make compiler

development easy
 To manufacture processor with more
extensive and complex instruction set.
 Most PCs are of CISC processor
 RISC Architecture
 It utilizes a small, highly optimized set of
instructions.
 Simplifies the instruction set-Reduces the
execution time
 Pipelining –overlapping( incorparate
registers)
Basis CISC RISC

Instruction set Complex instructions Simple instructions

Program code size smaller Lengthier

Processor size Increased hardware Reduced hardware

circuitry circuitry
Memory usage Less memory intensive More memory intensive

Power consumption More power Less power

Heating More heat Less heat

Distinction between the CISC & RISC Processors

 CISC Approach
 Concept- to accomplish task in as few lines of code by
building processor hardware capable of understanding
and executing a series of operations.
 For a task of addition -processor executes the
instructions and load two values from the specified
location in the memory into separate
registers.(DR1,DR2).
EX: ADD 1:1, 2:2-
ADD operates directly on computers memory
Advantage : length of the code is relatively short hence ,
lesser memory id required to store instructions
 RISC Approach
Simple instructions , one complex structure is
divided into many simple parts.
ADD instruction is divided into three
separate commands:
 Load-moves data from the memory
registers(DR1&DR2)
 SUM-find the sum of two operands located
within the accumulator
 Store-moves data from register (MBR) to the
memory.
In RISC approach we require coding four lines of
instruction
In RISC approach we require coding four
lines of instruction:

LOAD DR1, 1:1

LOAD DR2, 2:2
SUM DR1 ,DR2
STORE 2:3, DR1
o Processor speed
 The processor is the main hardware that
drives the computer , the faster the processor
can handle more operations.
 The overall speed of a computer is determined
by several factors , the clock speed and speed
and size of the data bus.
 Speed is measured in MHz
The factors which limit a processor chips speed:
Transmission delay on chip(in the wires that
connects the components together).
Heat build-up on the chip(each time the
transistor changes state (ON/OFF) they
discharge electricity that generate heat).
o Multiprocessor systems
 A computer systems which include more than
one processor are called the multiprocessor
systems or parallel systems.
 Instructions from different and independent
programs can be processed at the same time by
different processors.
 Speed of processing enhances drastically when
these kinds of systems is used.
A Multiprocessor System
Thank you