NAVIGATION

The objective of this training module is to give the maritime students an

introduction to navigation by helping them to assess the vessel’ position
and a safe course to steer
2M EMMY MART G. LAPIDANTE
“A ship in harbour is safe, but that is not what ships are built for."
-- William Shedd
Navigation

Is that / are art of

science that enables
the navigator to
determine the
position of his vessel
and safely conduct
his ship in the most
convenient, practical
and shortest sea
route on the earth’s
surface
Know the EARTH

It is a spherical body or an oblate spheroid

slightly flattened at the poles consisting of land,
water and atmosphere.
It is the 3rd Planet in our Solar system and the
only planet that is known to support life.
-Earth’s Statistics based on the World Geodetic
System (WGS) ellipsoid of 1972
- Diameter 7,926 st.mi. / 6,887 n.mi.
- Equatorial Radius 3,443.917 n.mi.
- Polar Radius 3,432.917 n.mi.
- Mean Radius 3,440.068 n.mi.
- Flattening of Ellipticity 0.003352578
- Eccentricity 0.81816355
EARTH 5 Circles and Zones on the surface
North Pole
Arctic Circle- the parallel of latitude about 66º 33’N
marking the Northern Limit of the Frigid Zone
NORTH
FRIGID
Tropics of Cancer- the declination ZONE
approximately 23º 27’N of the celestial
equator

NORTH
Equator – is a great TEMPORATE
circle 0º in Latitude ZONE
Lying midway between
the poles and its is 90º
on either poles

Tropics of Capricorn -
the declination
approximately 23º 27’S TORRID
of the celestial equator ZONE

Antarctic Circle - the parallel of

latitude about 66º 33’S marking the
Southern Limit of the Frigid Zone
SOUTH TEMPORATE
ZONE
South Pole
SOUTH FRIGID ZONE
EARTH 7 Seas
Arctic Ocean

North Atlantic
Ocean

South China
Pacific Ocean Sea

Indian Ocean

South Atlantic
Ocean

Antarctic Ocean
EARTH Small and Great Circles
LATITUDE – are lines contained
between the equator and the
latitudes parallel passing the place
or angular distance North or South
of the equator measured along the
meridian, that passes through the
place. Small Circles are circles
whose plane does not passes
through the earth’s center

LONGITUDE – are lines contained

between the prime meridian and
the meridian passing the place at
angular distance East or West of
the Prime Meridian. Great Circles
any circles whose plane passes
through the earth’s center I.e.
Meridians, Equator
Magnetism
The Earth itself is
considered to be a huge
natural magnet. It has a
magnetic field ( which is N
commonly conceptualized as
a innumerable lines of
force)
S
The end of the magnet that
points towards earth’s
Geographic North Pole is
labeled as the North pole of
the magnet and is painted
RED and the end that points
to the Geographical South is
painted BLUE

NP: Lat: 81º.3N Long: 110º.8 W SP: Lat: 64º.9S Long: 138º.9 W
Magnetism
Is a fundamental physical
phenomenon associated with
magnetic fields and their effect upon
magnetic materials occurs both
naturally, as in a Lodestone and
artificially by induction. It is property
of a certain metal to attract or repel
items of like materials or certain other
metals.
LIKE POLES – REPEL
UNLIKE POLES - ATTRACT
3 Kinds of Magnetism
Transient magnetism – Magnetism
which is easily lost when the
magnetizing force is resume near
it
Permanent magnetism – magnetism
acquired when metal is placed
under steel, hammered or bent
which in a magnetic field.

Induced magnetism – magnetism

acquired from material magnets.
MAJOR TYPES OF COMPASSES

As with the other aspects of navigation , technology

is rapidly revolutionizing the field of compasses.
Amazingly after at least a millennia of constant use,
it is now possible to dispense with the traditional
magnetic compass

Much of the history the only heading reference for

Navigations has been the magnetic compass. A great
deal of effort and expense has gone into understanding
the magnetic compass scientifically and making it as
accurate as possible through elaborate compensation
techniques.
COMPASS card
The Compass Card is
divided into 360 degrees
from North (0°) through
East (090°), South
(180°), West (270°) and
so back to North. The
card may be divided into
32 points of 11¼
degrees. The principal
points, North, South,
East and West are
called Cardinal Points.
The Inter-cardinal
Points are North-East,
South-East, South-West
and North-West.
 3 Methods in Marking the Compass
1st – Directions are divided by points,
half points, Quarter Points and Eight
Points

2nd – The card is divided into Degrees

with 0º at North or South, 90º East or
West.

3rd – the card is marked in degrees

clockwise from 0º - 360º with 0º at
North, 180º South, 90º East and 270º
West and 360º or 000º back to North.

Boxing the Compass – is a progress

of moving points, also a fractional
points of compass in regular sea
advance and naming them
Directionally by points opposite the
given points
Relative Bearing or Boxing the Compass
PORT N 000º STBD
348º.75 NxW 1 PT NxE 011º.25

AHEAD
DEAD
337º.50 NNW 2 PTS NNE 022º.50
326º.25 NWxN 3 PTS NExN 033º.75
315º.00 NW 4 PTS
NE 045º.00
303º.75 NWxW 5 PTS NExE 056º.25
292º.50 WNW 6 PTS ENE 067º.50
281º.25 WxN 7 PTS ExN 078º.75
270º.00 W 8 PTS
E 090º.00
258º.75 WxS 9 PTS ExS 101º.25
247º.50 WSW 10 PTS ESE 112º.50
236º.25 SWxW 11 PTS SExE 123º.75
225º.00 SW 12 PTS
SE 135º.00
213º.75 SWxS 13 PTS SExS 146º.25
202º. 50 SSW 14 PTS SSE 157º.50

ASTERN
DEAD
191º.25 SxW 15 PTS SxE 168º.75

PORT S 180º STBD

COMPASS BINNACLE
Magnetic Compass Binnacle.

This is normally mounted in a

binnacle. It is gimballed in order to
maintain the compass card in a
horizontal position when the ship
rolls and pitches. Because the
Magnetic compass has its own zone
of magnetic influence known as the
`magnetic field', other items of
magnetic material in this field will
tend to align themselves in the
direction of the lines of force. It is
important to remember that the
functioning of a magnetic compass
can be considerably influenced by
any magnetic substance close to it
COMPASSES Binnacle
The binnacle therefore is constructed of
non-magnetic materials such as wood,
brass, and copper as are the fixings. Any
magnetic material such as steel and iron, or
wires and cables carrying electrical current
are kept as far away from the compass as
possible. The compass needle is a magnet
seeking Magnetic North. Its accuracy is
dependant upon the magnetic properties
surrounding it. These properties cause
deviation (to be covered later). In order to
eliminate the deviation as much as possible,
a process known as `Swing ship' is carried
out, whereby the ship is swung through the
points of the compass and during the
process the deviation is reduced to a
minimum by adding permanent magnets,
flinders bars and soft iron spheres, details
are then recorded on a deviation chart,
(updated at regular intervals).
Kinds of COMPASS
Magnetic Compass – a compass
which depends on the directive
power of upon the influence of the
Earth’s Magnetic field upon an
artificial magnets or group of
magnets of the compass
Portable MAGNETIC COMPASSES
These are similar to or a smaller version of
the Ship's Magnetic Compass. The compass is
housed in a non-magnetic container often
fitted with a cover. When used in a boat it
should be placed with the `lubbers line' in the
fore-and-aft line of the boat and as far away
as possible from the engine and other
magnetic items. Small magnetic compasses
are affected by metal objects such as
watches, coins and bunches of keys which
may cause inaccuracies in
bearings. Whenever a course is steered by
eye the corresponding compass course
should be noted and recorded, due allowance
being made for the effects of wind and
current so that in the event of fog or reduced
visibility a correct course may be steered by
compass. The best way to take a bearing of
an object from a boat is to point the bow of
the boat at the object, taking care to have
sufficient room to manoeuvre.
MAJOR TYPES OF COMPASSES
Reasons for correcting the error of a magnetic compass:

1. It is easier to use a magnetic compass if the deviation

deviations are small.

2. Even known and fully compensated deviation introduces error

because the compass operates sluggishly and unsteadily when deviation
is present.

3. Even though the deviations are

compensated for they will be
subject to appreciable change as a
function heel and magnetic latitude.
MAJOR TYPES OF COMPASSES
Gyro Compass – a compass which
depends upon the tendency of a
properly mounted gyroscope to align
the axis with the meridian
GYRO COMPASSES
Gyro Compass.
This type of compass obtains its directive force from the
rotation of the Earth and seeks True North. The
gyroscope is mechanically and electrically dependent
upon the ship's power supplies and proper maintenance.
It is normally sited as near as possible to the centre of
the ship to obtain best performance. By means of
electrical transmissions a series of repeaters are used
and situated in various parts of the ship for Navigational
purposes. There are two main types, a Bearing Repeater
and a Steering Repeater. The bearing repeaters are
always mounted in gimbals and gimbals rings in order to
maintain the repeater bowl and it's compass card in a
horizontal position when the ship pitches and rolls. The
direction of the ship's head is indicated by a pointer
called the `lubbers line', which is set in the direction of
the fore-and-aft line of the ship. The repeater at the
This combines the Magnetic North seeking
primary Navigation position on the compass platform, is
properties of the Magnetic Compass with
mounted in a special stand known as a `Pelorus'. Wing
the stabilising property of a gyroscope.
repeaters are fitted on brackets in the bridge wings, the
bearing repeaters are fitted with a portable Azimuth
Circle, which can be rotated round the top of the
repeater bowl. There are two types of steering repeater,
one is similar to the bearing repeater, the other more
regularly used is a tape repeater. This is an endless tape,
mounted on rollers and is viewed through a small
window, which allows up to about 15 degrees on either
side of the ship's head to be seen.
MAJOR TYPES OF COMPASSES
The introduction of the electro-mechanical gyrocompass
relegated the magnetic compass to back up status for many
large vessels. Later came the development of inertial
navigation system based on gyroscopic principles.

Gyro compass elevate its status whenever there are:

Interruption of electrical power

Mechanical failure

Physical destruction of the gyro

compass or inertial navigator
Determine and apply compass error for
course and speed
The total of all combined errors of the gyrocompass is called
gyro error and is expressed in degrees East or West, just like
variation and deviation. But gyro error, unlike magnetic compass
error, and being independent of Earth’s magnetic field, will be
constant in one direction; that is an error of one degree east will
apply to all bearing all around the compass.
Heading Relationships

A summary of heading relationships follows:

Deviation is the difference between compass

heading and the magnetic heading.

Variation is the difference between the magnetic

heading and the true heading.

The algebraic sum of deviation and variation is

the compass error.
Simple Rules in correcting the compass

The same rules apply to correcting gyrocompass

errors, although gyro errors always apply in the
same direction. That is, they are E or W all around
the compass.

Complete familiarity with the correcting of

compasses is essential for navigator by magnetic
or gyro compass.

The professional navigator who deals with them

continually can do them in his head quickly and
accurately.
Simply Rules in correcting the compass

Compass least, error east; compass

best, error west.

When correcting, add easterly errors.

Subtract westerly errors (Remember:
Correcting Add East)

When un-correcting, subtract easterly

errors, add westerly errors.
Simple Rules in correcting the compass

COMPASS DEVIATION MAGNETIC VARIATION TRUE

358º 5º E 003º 6º E 009º

120º 1º W 119º 3º E 112º

180º 6º E 186º 8º W 178º

240º 5º W 235º 7º W 228º

USE THE MEMORY AID “CAN DEAD MAN VOTE TWICE AT ELECTIONS” (Compass,
Deviation, Magnetic, Variation, True; Add East). When converting compass heading to
true heading, add easterly deviations and variations and subtract westerly deviations
and variations.
Directions
HEADING – is the direction in which the ship actually heads and actually points or the
actual angle of the ship’s keel or fore and aft line is making with the meridian

55’ 113º0 05’ 10’ 114º15’

COURSE – is the 0’ 14º15’

actual angle of the

ship’s keel or fore
and aft line is
making with the
meridian 10’

EX: Ships Heading /

Course 323º T

05’

13º00’
Ancient Navigation
In the middle ages, the seaman’s
quadrant used a plumb line to
measure the angle between the
celestial body and the horizon.
The astrolabe is a hanging metal
ring with one or two openings
which projects the sun’s ray onto a
scale.
The cross staff or Jacob’s staff, has
a right-angle transom. that slides
until one end sights the horizon,
and the other the celestial body.
An improvement came in the 16th
century with the back-staff that
sighted the sun by projecting it’s
shadows on a vane, which served
as a horizon sight. It is not until the
18th century, when mirrors were
added, that these instruments
became the forerunners of the
modern sextant.
Establishing a Position

In the Northern Hemisphere, the latitude can easily be found

by measuring the Pole Star’s elevation
Ancient and Modern Navigational Instruments
The modern navigational tools
clockwise from left are:
•Plotting Rule
•Navigational Triangles
•Compass / pencil
•Parallel ruler
•Navigational chart

The tools clockwise from left are:

•astrolabe
•compass with transverse board
•lead and line
•quadrant
•divider
Ancient Navigation
Sailing by Dead Reckoning requires continuous
measurements of the course and speed of the
vessel. From the ancient Greek to the Norsemen,
navigators wrote sailing directions like: “Sail
westward keeping these two mountain tops aligned,
until, until you meet again sea-birds; then turn
north until land appears on the horizon.” if this
failed, they were lost at sea!
In the 15th century, Europe expands and sea-trade
flourish, in northern Europe. The Hansa league
controls the sea and their sailors measures distances
along coastal water by noting, with the help of a
time glass, the time it takes to cover certain
distances.

The accuracy of dead Reckoning* navigation

decrease with time.
*from Deduced reckoning or Ded. reckoning
Two Branches of Navigation

Geo-Navigation – is that part of

navigation by which ship’s position is
determine from bearing and sightings
of earthly terrestrial objects.

Celo-Navigation or Nautical Astronomy–

is that part of navigation by which
ship’s position is determined by the
position of celestial objects I.e. Sun,
Moon, Stars, and planets
Types of Geo-Navigation
PILOTING – ship’s position is determine by the aide of visible objects on earth,
by sounding and by radio bearings.
Types of Geo-Navigation
DEAD RECKONING – ship’s position is determined by plotting courses and
direction Determining a position by speeds from a known position. It is also
used to predict when lights become visible or to determine the set and rate of
a current.

WP 5

WP 6
Types of Geo-Navigation
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION – ship’s position is determined is based on the
principles or Radar Plotting and other electronic aides.
Ocean Navigation
Is that / are art
of science that
enables the a
navigator to
determine the
position of his
vessel and safely
conduct his ship
in the most
convenient,
practical and
shortest sea
route on the
earth’s surface
Gerardus Mercator
(March 5, 1512 – December 2, 1594)
was a Flemish cartographer. He was born in
Rupelmonde in East Flanders to parents from
Gangelt in the Duchy of Jülich. He lived in Duisburg
from 1552. He is remembered for the Mercator
chart named after him.

Mercator map of Europe

Chart Work
Chart Work
The need for a Chart A ship can be navigated safely from one port to another by
following a selected route on a chart, this is virtually a contour map of the sea bed and
its surrounding coastline except, whereas, a land map gives the height of the land
contours above sea level, a chart gives the depth of the bottom below sea level. The
selected route takes into account the draught of the ship so that there is always enough
water under her bottom. Land features and floating marks shown on the chart can be
used to fix a vessel's position. The conventional signs used on a chart are similar to
those used on a map and are to be found listed in Chart No 5011 (Symbols and
Abbreviations used on Admiralty charts)
Chart Work
55’ 113º00’ 05’ 10’ 114º15’
14º
15’

10’

05’

13º
00’

Longitude
The Longitude of a place is the angular measurement between its meridian and the meridian of Greenwich. The
angle is measured at the centre of the earth and is expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds (or in degrees,
minutes and decimals of a minute) from 0-180 East or West of the Greenwich Meridian. (UP AND DOWN THE
CHART)
Chart Work
55’ 113º00’ 05’ 10’ 114º15’
14º
15’

10’

05’

13º
00’

Latitude
The Latitude of a place is the angular measurement between its parallel of Latitude and the Equator. The angle is
measured at the centre of the earth and is expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds (or in degrees, minutes
and decimals of a minute) from 0-90 North or South from the Equator. (ACROSS THE CHART)
 Chart Work

Distance
The distance scale is the scale of Latitude at the side of the chart, one minute of Latitude being equal to One sea
Mile. It is important to remember that this scale alters with the latitude, and that the distance should therefore be
measured off that portion of the Latitude scale, which is abreast the position which is to be recorded. The distance of
an object from the ship may be expressed in nautical miles (one nautical mile equals 1852 metres), in cables (one cable is
one-tenth of a nautical mile) or in metres. (A land mile = 1609 metres).
The advantage of the Mercator projection is that Latitude and Longitudes are at right angles and it
makes it easy to read the bearing. At small scale, the Mercator projection also gives true distances.
Unfortunately, because the distance in Longitudes are equal to the cosine of the Latitude, the
Mercator projection cannot really be used near the poles, where distortion reaches its maximum.
As an example. A Mercator projection at latitude 60º North gives a one-by-one degree rectangle
which is twice as high as wide (the cosine of 60º is 0.5)
The advantage of the Mercator projection is that Latitude and Longitudes are at right angles and it
makes it easy to read the bearing. At small scale, the Mercator projection also gives true distances.
Unfortunately, because the distance in Longitudes are equal to the cosine of the Latitude, the
Mercator projection cannot really be used near the poles, where distortion reaches its maximum.
As an example. A Mercator projection at latitude 60º North gives a one-by-one degree rectangle
which is twice as high as wide (the cosine of 60º is 0.5)
Chart Classification by Scale
WHAT IS A CHART PROJECTION – is a process of transferring points in the
surface of the the sphere or spheroid onto a plane or onto a developable plane
surface such as a cylinder or cone to produce a systematic drawing of lines
representing the parallels of latitudes and the meridians of longitudes of the
earth or portion of the earth

MERCATOR PROJECTION – is a conformal

cylindrical projection in which the surface of a
sphere or spheroid, is developed on a cylindrical
tangent along the equator. Meridians appear as
equally spaced vertical lines and parallels as
horizontal lines drawn farther apart as the latitude
increase such that the correct relationship between
latitude and longitudes scale at any points is
maintained. Also called EQUATORIAL
CYLINDRICAL ORTHOMORPHIC PROJECTION
A Mercator Map of the World
Chart Classification by Scale

The scale of a chart is the ratio of a given distance on the chart to

the actual distance which it represents on the earth. It may be
expressed in various ways. The most common are:

1. A simple ratio or fraction, known as the representative fraction. For example,

1:80,000 or 1/80,000 means that one unit (such as a meter) on the chart
represents 80,000 of the same unit on the surface of the earth. This scale is
sometimes called the natural or fractional scale.
2. A statement that a given distance on the earth equals a given measure on the
chart, or vice versa. For example, “30 miles to the inch” means that 1 inch on
the chart represents 30 miles of the earth’s surface. Similarly, “2 inches to a
mile” indicates that 2 inches on the chart represent 1 mile on the earth. This is
sometimes called the numerical scale.
3. A line or bar called a graphic scale may be drawn at a convenient place on the
chart and subdivided into nautical miles, meters, etc. All charts vary somewhat in
scale from point to point, and in some projections the scale is not the same in
all directions about a single point. A single subdivided line or bar for use over
an entire chart is shown only when the chart is of such scale and projection
that the scale varies a negligible amount over the chart, usually one of about
1:75,000 or larger. Since 1 minute of latitude is very nearly equal to 1 nautical
mile, the latitude scale serves as an approximate graphic scale. On most
nautical charts the east and west borders are subdivided to facilitate distance
measurements
Chart Classification by Scale
Charts are constructed on many different scales, ranging from about 1:2,500 to
1:14,000,000. Small-scale charts covering large areas are used for route planning and for
offshore navigation. Charts of larger scale, covering smaller areas, are used as the vessel
approaches land. Several methods of classifying charts according to scale are used in
various nations. The following classifications of nautical charts are used by the National
Ocean Service.
Sailing charts are the smallest scale charts used for planning, fixing position at sea, and
for plotting the dead reckoning while proceeding on a long voyage. The scale is generally
smaller than 1:600,000. The shoreline and topography are generalized and only offshore
soundings, the principal navigational lights, outer buoys, and landmarks visible at
considerable distances are shown.
General charts are intended for coastwise navigation outside of outlying reefs and
shoals. The scales range from about 1:150,000 to 1:600,000.
Coastal charts are intended for inshore coastwise navigation, for entering or leaving
bays and harbors of considerable width, and for navigating large inland waterways. The
scales range from about 1:50,000 to 1:150,000.
Harbor charts are intended for navigation and anchorage in harbors and small
waterways. The scale is generally larger than 1:50,000. In the classification system used
by NIMA, the sailing charts are incorporated in the general charts classification (smaller
than about 1:150,000); those coast charts especially useful for approaching more
confined waters (bays, harbors) are classified as approach charts. There is considerable
overlap in these designations, and the classification of a chart is best determined by its
use and by its relationship to other charts of the area. The use of insets complicates the
placement of charts into rigid classifications.
Chart Classification by Scale
On a Mercator chart the scale varies with the latitude. This is noticeable on a
chart covering a relatively large distance in a north-south direction. On such a
chart the border scale near the latitude in question should be used for
measuring distances. Of the various methods of indicating scale, the graphical
method is normally available in some form on the chart. In addition, the scale is
customarily stated on charts on which the scale does not change appreciably
over the chart. The ways of expressing the scale of a chart are readily
interchangeable. For instance, in a nautical mile there are about 72,913.39
inches. If the natural scale of a chart is 1:80,000, one inch of the chart
represents 80,000 inches of the earth, or a little more than a mile. To find the
exact amount, divide the scale by the number of inches in a mile, or
80,000/72,913.39 = 1.097. Thus, a scale of 1:80,000 is the same as a scale of
1.097 (or approximately 1.1) miles to an inch. Stated another way, there are:
72,913.39/80,000 = 0.911 (approximately 0.9) inch to a mile. Similarly, if the
scale is 60 nautical miles to an inch, the representative fraction is 1:(60 x
72,913.39) = 1:4,374,803. A chart covering a relatively large area is called a
small-scale chart and one covering a relatively small area is called a large-
scale chart. Since the terms are relative, there is no sharp division between the
two. Thus, a chart of scale 1:100,000 is large scale when compared with a chart
of 1:1,000,000 but small scale when compared with one of 1:25,000. As scale
decreases, the amount of detail which can be shown decreases also.
Cartographers selectively decrease the detail in a process called
generalization when producing small scale charts using large scale charts as
sources. The amount of detail shown depends on several factors, among them
the coverage of the area at larger scales and the intended use of the chart.
Reading the Distance Scale

1m ≠ 1 n. mi. 1m ≠ 1 n. mi.

60s ≠ 1m 60s ≠ 1m

1m ≠ 1 n. mi. 45s ≠ 0.75m

≠ 60s
1m ≠ 1 n. mi.
30s ≠ 0.5m 30s ≠ 0.50m
≠ 60s

15s ≠ 0.25m
Reading the Distance Scale

1m ≠ 1 n. mi. 1m ≠ 1 n. mi.

60s ≠ 1m 60s ≠ 1m
54s ≠ 0.9m
48s ≠ 0.8m 48s ≠ 0.8m
42s ≠ 0.7m

36s ≠ 0.6m 36s ≠ 0.6m

1m ≠ 1 n. mi. 1m ≠ 1 n. mi.
30s ≠ 0.5m
≠ 60s 24s ≠ 0.4m ≠ 60s 24s ≠ 0.4m
18s ≠ 0.3m
12s ≠ 0.2m 12s ≠ 0.2m
06s ≠ 0.1m
Chart Classification by Scale

Small scale chart are always

based on a Mercator projection,
the nautical mile is by definition 1
minute of a degree of latitude. 1º
is traditionally divided into 60
minutes. With each minute
divided into 60 seconds. Today
however, nearly all nautical
charts and navigation
instruments indicate degrees,
minutes and tenths. Or
hundredths of a minute. One
hundredth of a minute of latitude
corresponds to 18.52 meters and
this exceeds the accuracy of
most navigation systems’ or
charts’ resolution.
Dead reckoning (DR) is obtained
by measuring the distance
covered since the last position
was noted and drawing as an
equivalent line in the direction
sailed. Note that on a Mercator
chart. Distances always have to
be measured from the nearest
scale as it varies for each
latitude.
Navigation Chart
On a mercator chart, the straight line
drawn between two points is called the
rhumb Line or Loxodromic Line. On a
sphere, the shortest distance between two
points is the great circle passing through
these points. All the longitudes and the
equator are great circles I.e. they divide
the sphere in two. Navigating along the
North-South axis or along the equator is
simply a matter of following the bearing to
the destination requires the calculation of
the great circle line. If both points are on
the same hemisphere, the great circle line
will always be closer to the pole than the
Rhumb Line.
The great circle line can be found by using
trigonometry, special great circle or
Gnomonic. Passage Pilot Books, or
nowadays on the on-board navigation
computer.
When using the Gnomonic chart, the
navigator draws a straight line between
the points, then notes the latitude for
every 5 or 10 degrees of longitude. And
transfer it to a Mercator chart. In practice,
the most favorable rout will be calculated
taking account of other factors such as the
weather pattern, ocean currents, drift ice
and landmasses.
Oblique Mercator Porjection
A Mercator projection in which the cylinder is tangentalong a great circle other than the equator or a
meridian is called an oblique Mercator or oblique orthomorphic projection. See Figure 309a and Figure
309b. This projection is used principally to depict an area in the near vicinity of an oblique great circle. Figure
309c, for example, shows the great circle joining Washington and Moscow. Figure 309d shows an oblique
Mercator map with the great circle between these two centers as the tangent great circle or fictitious equator.
The limits of the chart of Figure 309c are indicated in Figure 309d.
Note the large variation in scale

An oblique gnomonic projection An oblique gnomonic map with point of tangency

at latitude 30°N, longitude 90°W.
Transverse Mercator Porjection
Constructing a chart using Mercator principles, but
with the cylinder tangent along a meridian, results in a
transverse Mercator or transverse orthomorphic
projection. The word “inverse” is used interchangeably with
“transverse.” These projections use a fictitious graticule
similar to, but offset from, the familiar network of meridians
and parallels. The tangent great circle is the fictitious
equator. Ninety degrees from it are two fictitious poles. A
group of great circles through these poles and perpendicular
to the tangent great circle are the fictitious meridians, while
a series of circles parallel to the plane of the tangent great
circle form the fictitious parallels. The actual meridians and
parallels appear as curved lines.
A straight line on the transverse or oblique Mercator
projection makes the same angle with all fictitious meridians,
but not with the terrestrial meridians. It is therefore
a fictitious rhumb line. Near the tangent great circle, a
straight line closely approximates a great circle. The
Projection is most useful in this area. Since the area of
minimum distortion is near a meridian, this projection is
useful for charts covering a large band of latitude and
extending a relatively short distance on each side of the
tangent meridian. It is sometimes used for star charts
showing the evening sky at various seasons of the year.
Oblique Mercator Porjection
A Mercator projection in which the cylinder is tangent along a great circle other than the equator or a
meridian is called an oblique Mercator or oblique orthomorphic projection. See Figure 309a and Figure
309b. This projection is used principally to depict an area in the near vicinity of an oblique great circle. Figure
309c, for example, shows the great circle joining Washington and Moscow. Figure 309d shows an oblique
Mercator map with the great circle between these two centers as the tangent great circle or fictitious equator.
The limits of the chart of Figure 309c are indicated in Figure 309d.
Note the large variation in scale

The great circle between

Washington and Moscow as
it appears on a Mercator
map

An oblique Mercator map

based upon a cylinder tangent
along the great circle through
Washington and
Moscow. The map includes an
area 500 miles on each side of
the great circle. The limits of
this map are indicated on the
Mercator
Satellite Navigation
The earth is not a perfect sphere. This
wasn't a problem until satellite
navigation systems started to give
position in 3 dimensions. To do this,
the calculations assumes a perfect
sphere and corrects the elevation at
the actual place of observation. This
correction is called the Geoidal Height.
Charts are relatively accurate but they
were drawn long before satellite
surveys were available. In order to
correct charts to the extreme accuracy
of satellite positioning. A standard
reference had to be created. The
World Geodetic system of 1972. (WS
72). Supersede by the WGS 84 in
1984. Is the reference datum chart
should be corrected for when when
reading satellite system position.
Usually, charts will indicate the North-
South and East-West correction to be
added in order to confirm to the WGS-
84 Datum.
In places, charts may show several
hundred meters difference compared
to a satellite based position. Some
charts are still based on surveys done
on the last century
Satellite Navigation
The position of a vessel
is found by plotting
lines of position (LOP)
on a chart. These are
found by dead
reckoning. Taking
bearings or by reading
Navigational
instruments. A line of
position is a single line
drawn from a single
measurement. It can
be from an observation
of a celestial body. Or a
bearing from landmark
or a radio navigation
instrument bearing. A
minimum of 2 LOP is
necessary in order to
assume a position.
Usually 3 LOP are used
and the position is
assumed to be inside
the triangle. Or cocked-
hat. Created by the
Note that, if LOP from celestial observations are in fact curved line. At s small scale. They
intersection of these
can be drawn as straight lines.
lines.
Three lines of position drawn on a chart as a very small triangle is a good estimate of the
position
Satellite Navigation

A vessel is said to sail on a course. However, one must differentiate

between the direction in which the vessel is heading, and the
direction in which the vessel is travelling relative to land – the
ground track. The difference is the result of the combined action of
the tidal stream currents and wind speed, and is called the drift or
leeway.
Plotting the DR position requires the plotting of a vector based on
heading and the distance sailed through in the water. Followed by
the plotting of a vector of the drift. The resultant of the 2 vectors is
the estimated DR position.
Note that, the vessel's has to take account of drift before finding the
actual ground track.
Satellite Navigation

Today all electronic navigation instrument give the calculated

position in degrees of latitude and longitude. To plot the position
is a simple matter of drawing the intersection of the given
latitude and longitude.
Chart work is best done with a pencil and a slide ruler or triangle,
when the position is plotted, the following notation is made: the
time (usually UTC time), the log counter reading, and eventually
the words “FIX” or ”DR” to denote if the position was obtained
from an instrument reading or from dead reckoning.
This practice may seem archaic nowadays with the advent of
Differential GPS and Digital plotters, but electronic can be prone
to failure
Satellite Navigation

Navigation is not possible without knowing the time, in which

direction, and at what speed a vessel is moving. Most radio
navigation instrument and some Doppler sounders will compute
the course and sped of a vessel of any size relies on the compass
and the log to find the direction and speed through water.
The compass, the log and the chronometer are the vessel’s
primary instruments.
Satellite Navigation

Navigation is not possible without knowing the time, in

which direction, and at what speed a vessel is moving.
Most radio navigation instrument and some Doppler
sounders will compute the course and sped of a vessel of
any size relies on the compass and the log to find the
direction and speed through water.
The compass, the log and the chronometer are the
vessel’s primary instruments.
Traffic Separation Scheme
In confined waters traffic
Separation Schemes (TSS)
ensure safe navigation as
it separates inbound and
outbound traffic in well
marked lanes.
Regulations request all
vessels to join or leaven
these lanes at their
extremities. If impractical,
the lanes should be
entered at as shallow an
angle as possible. If a TSS
has to be crossed. It has
to be carried out as
possible to a right angle.
Being in the TSS doesn’t
change the general Rule
of the Road convention.

Traffic Separation Scheme

routes may vary with the
vessel’s draught, tonnage
or cargo type.
Lines of Position
The modern chart shows us positions of
many recognizable aids to navigation like
churches and lighthouses, which facilitate
the approach to a coastal area. This concept
originated from a chart by Waghenaer and
proved a milestone in the development of
European cartography. This work was called
“Spieghel der Zeevaerdt” and included
coastal profiles and tidal information much
like the modern chart. It enables us to find
the angle between the North and for
example an offshore platform, as seen from
our position.

Taking a bearing on this oil rig with a

compass provides us with a compass
course. This course first needs correction
for both variation and - via ship's heading
- deviation before plotting a Line of
Position (LOP) in the chart as a true
course. Our position is somewhere along
this line.
Ranges
A precise way to obtain a LOP, and without a compass, is to locate two
aids to navigation in line. The map of Laura Island on the right shows
four examples of ranges, each consisting of two aids to navigation.
Please, note that:
More distance between the two landmarks
enhances accuracy.
And less distance between the vessel and the
closest aid to navigation also enhances accuracy.

One of these four ranges consists of two lights

that are intentionally placed to provide a LOP. These
pairs of lights are called range lights or leading
lights. In this case they indicate the approach
towards the marina and mark the channel between
the dangerous rocks along a true course of
50°When looking towards any leading lights,
the nearest one will be lower
Therefore, in the middle of the channel
both lights will appear vertically above each
other.
Even when there are no man-made
structures available, a range can be found by
using natural features such as coastlines and
islets. The example on the left shows a yacht
that will avoid the dangerous wreck as long as
the islets don't overlap.
Position Fix
If two LOPs intersect we can construct a position fix: the ship's position on the earth.
Often however, a triangle occurs when a third LOP is added in the construction. This
indicates that there are errors involved in at least one of the bearings taken. In practice,
we should consider each LOP as the average bearing in a wider sector of for instance 10°.
.

The optimum angular spread is 90° (two objects) or 120° (three objects). Moreover, bearings on
distant objects bring about more uncertainty in our position fix as the sector widens. Finally, if moving
fast you should not put any time between the bearings.
The next example features a nocturnal landfall on Willemsen Island - you are welcome to visit, but
mind the rocks. The position fix is plotted by taking bearings at two light-vessels as their lights appear
over the horizon. The variation is -1° and the ship's compass heading is 190°. Since we use our
steering compass for our bearings, we can use the same deviation table. That means a deviation of
-4° with which we can calculate (cc + var + dev = tc) the true courses.
Position Fix
Compass bearing on Will. N is 72°
· True course is 67°
· Plot LOP with time & true course

· Compass bearing on Will. S is 173°

· True course is 168°
· Plot LOP with time & true course
· Draw an ellipse where the LOPs intersect
· Notate time and “Fix” alongside
· Position is 32° 04,2' N , 24° 46,7' E
Without a third LOP - forming the dreaded triangle - there
is the false suggestion of accuracy. Yet, instrument errors,
erroneous identification of an aid to navigation, sloppy
plotting, etc. can and will cause navigation errors.
Therefore, if close to e.g. rocks, you should assume to be
at the worst possible position (i.e. closest to the
navigational hazard).
The lines plotted in the chart are always true
courses and these are labelled with true courses by
default; the “T” is optional. If labelled with the
corresponding magnetic courseor compass course add
an “M” or “C”, respectively.
Estimated Position
It is sometimes impossible to obtain more than one LOP at a time. To
determine the ship's position with one aid to navigation we can use
a running fix. However if a running fix is not possible, we can determine
an estimated position.

An estimated position is based upon whatever

incomplete navigational information is available, such
as a single LOP, a series of depth measurements
correlated to charted depths, or a visual observation
of the surroundings.
In the example on the right we see an estimated
position constructed using a single LOP and the ship's
dead reckoning position (DR). This is done by
drawing a line from the DR position at the time of the
LOP perpendicular to the LOP. An EP is denoted by a
square instead of an ellipse.
Do not rely on an EP as much as a fix. The scale of
reliability, from best to worst: Fix
Running fix
Estimated Position
DR position
Dead Reckoning
Dead reckoning is a technique to determine a ship's approximate position by applying to
the last established charted position a vector or series of vectors representing true
courses and speed. This means that if we have an earlier fix, we plot from that position
our course and “distance travelled since then” and deduce our current position.

We start off with a Fix and plot a DR position for 15

0930 minutes later.

Our estimation about our speed and course was

0945 correct, so we don't have to charge the DR
position.

1000 and so on…

S = Speed through water (not over ground)

C = Course through water (not over ground)
T = True course (default)
M = Magnetic course for handheld compass (no deviation correction)
C = Compass course for steering compass (deviation correction)
Mark with an arrow, a semi-circle (circular arc) and “DR”.

Dead reckoning is crucial since it provides an approximate position in the future. Each time a fix or running fix
is plotted, a vector representing the ordered course and speed originate from it. The direction of this course
line represents the ship's course, and the length represents the distance one would expect the ship to travel
in a given time. This extrapolation is used as a safety precaution: a predicted DR position that will place the
ship in water 1 metre deep should raise an eyebrow…
In the example above the true courses are plotted in the chart, and to assist the helmsman these course lines
are labelled with the corresponding compass courses.
Guidelines for Dead Reckoning
Plot a new course line
from each new fix or
running fix (single LOP).

Never draw a new

course line from an EP.

Plot a DR position
every time course or WP 5

speed changes.

Plot a corrected DR
position if the predicted
course line proofed
wrong, and continue from WP 6

there.
Running Fix
Under some circumstances, such as low visibility, only one line of position can be obtained
at a time. In this event, a line of position obtained at an earlier time may be advanced to
the time of the later LOP. These two LOPs should not be parallel to each other; remember
that the optimal angular spread is 90°. The position obtained is termed a running fix
because the ship has “run” a certain distance during the time interval between the two
LOPs.
We obtain a single LOP on LANBY 1 and plot a
corresponding (same time) dead reckoning
0916 position. The estimated position is constructed by
drawing the shortest line between the DR and the
LOP: perpendicular.

0926 No LOPs at all. We tack and plot a DR position.

We obtain a LOP on LANBY 2. To use the first LOP

we advance it over a construction line between the
0934 two corresponding DR positions. We use both its
direction & distance.
Running Fix
To use the LOP obtained at an earlier time, we must
advance it to the time of the second LOP. This is done
by using the dead reckoning plot. First, we measure
the distance between the two DR positions and draw
a construction line, which is parallel to a line
connecting the two DR positions.
Note that if there are no intervening course changes
between the two DR positions, it's easiest just to use
the course line itself as the construction line.
Now, using the parallel rulers we advance the first LOP
along this construction line over the distance we
measured. Et voilá, the intersection is our RFix.
If there is an intervening course change, it appears to
make our problem harder. Not so! The only DR
positions that matter are the two corresponding with
the LOPs.
Guidelines for advancing a LOP:
· The distance: equal to the distance
between the two corresponding DR positions.
· The direction: equal to the direction
between the two corresponding DR positions.
· Draw the advanced LOP with a dotted line
and mark with both times.
· Label the Running Fix with an ellipse and
"RFix" without underlining.
Glossary
•Line Of Position (LOP): The locus of points along which a ship's position must lie. A minimum of
two LOPs are necessary to establish a fix. It is standard practice to use at least three LOPs
when obtaining a fix, to guard against the possibility of and, in some cases, remove ambiguity.
•Transit fix: The method of lining up charted objects to obtain an LOP.
•Leading lights or Range lights: A pair of lights or day marks deliberately placed to mark a
narrow channel.
•Position fix: The intersection of various LOPs.
•Cross bearing: The use of LOPs of several navigational aids to obtain a position fix. Remember to
use an optimal angular spread.
•Running fix: The use of an advanced LOP. Make sure to use only the corresponding DR positions.
Also don't use the EP for advancing the first LOP.
•Dead reckoning: Determining a position by plotting courses and speeds from a known position. It
is also used to predict when lights become visible or to determine the set and rate of a
current.
•Estimated position: Combine a corresponding DR position with a single LOP to get an EP
position.
•Snellius construction: Another way to combine three compass bearings to obtain a position fix.
The advantage over a cross bearing is that both magnetic variation and deviation don't need to be
taken into account.
•Course: (C) The direction in which a vessel is steered or is intended to be steered (direction
through the water).
•Speed: (S) The speed of the boat through the water.
•Set: (SET) The direction in which the current is flowing (see chapters 6,7 and 8).
•Drift: (DFT) The speed (in knots) of the current (see chapters 6,7 and 8).
•Default heading is True course (M = magnetic , C = compass).
•Default time is 24 hour clock ship time else UTC.
Celestial Navigation
Celestial navigation is the means of
finding one or several LOP using a

 Pole Star sextant, a chronometer, celestial

ephemeris and conversion tables.
The celestial bodies that can be used for
 Sun navigation are:

 Moon
♃ Jupiter
The sun has the advantage of being
visible during daytime. At night , it is
often difficult to sight the horizon. A full
♀ Venus moon, low over the horizon, will give a
good sight, so will Venus. Which is often
☿ Mercury visible before sunset. Mercury is often too
close to the sun in order to be sighted.
But the moon and the planet’s trajectory
 Some Stars is complex and finding a LOP requires a
lot of calculation.
Celestial Navigation
The sextant is a fragile instrument that has to be calibrated properly. An error of 1 degree of
latitude represents 60 Nautical Miles on the chart. And Index error should be plotted by
calibration and added to the calculated elevation.
To find a celestial body elevation with the sextant. It has to be first set to estimated degree of
elevation. Then while holding it firmly, adjust the Vernier screw until the observed body
“kisses” the horizon. To make sure that the sextant is kept in the vertical plane, the navigator
should gently swing the sextant as a pendulum and read the shortest value.
Navigational Astronomy
The double-reflecting instrument (one that uses two mirrors to
bring the celestial body down to the horizon; hence the
navigator no longer has to try to look two places at once) was
apparently invented by Newton in 1699, though it was London
mathematician John Hadley who got the credit for first
producing one in 1731. To complicate matters, American
inventor Thomas Godfrey built one in 1730, but was not
acknowledged by the Royal Society. Hadley's second
instrument had an arc of 1/8 of a circle and hence was called
an octant; the sextant is 1/6 of a circle. Here is Bruce Bauer's
definition: "A sextant is, in essence, a machine for varying the
angle between two mirrors by precisely measurable numbers
of degrees to utilize the phenomenon that the angle of the
departing light ray will have been changed by double the angle
between the mirrors."

It is hand held precession build optical instrument for

measuring the angle between the lines of sight to two points
by bringing into coincidence at the eye of the observer the
direct ray from one point and the double reflected ray from
the other
Navigational Astronomy Marine Sextant
Marine Sextant

The reading is 65º 33’ 00”

Marine Sextant
Finding the latitude by observing the
sun requires measuring its elevation at
its Meridian passage. The sun moves
along an apparent circle above the
horizon when it is at its apogee it is
due true South and at its meridian.
Sighting the Sun’s meridian requires
sighting the suns sometime before its
assumed Meridian time. Then it still
rises in relation to the horizon. The
vernier screw is adjusted until the sun
stops rising. The latitude is then
obtained by subtracting the elevation
from 90º and adding the sun’s
declination if it is in the same
hemisphere (summer) or subtracting
the declination if it is in the other
hemisphere (winter)
The observers elevation refraction and
half-diameter corrections have also to
be added. In practise, all this are
calculated before the time of Meridian
and the elevation read on the sextant is
subtracted, thus quickly giving the
latitude
Marine Sextant
finding the longitude is finding the
distance from a reference meridian,
like the Greenwich meridian a simple
method would be to find the local
time of the sun’s meridian and
subtract it from the Greenwich mean
Time (GMT) the sun moves 360º in
24 hours, which is a quarter of a
nautical mile at the equator. This
time difference could then be
translated into degrees of longitude,
however, as previously mentioned,
the time of the sun’s meridian can
seldom be found accurately because
the sun’s apparent rise above the
horizon seems to stop for several
minutes as it reaches the meridian.
The most common technique in When this method is used, the noon position is
finding the longitude requires taking integrated to the morning/evening position by
the sun’s elevation early in the recording the distance and heading between
morning or late in the evening, when
the sun bears due East or West. the two observations. The technique is similar to
Then an LOP, which is almost parallel the Running Fix.
with the longitude is drawn.
Finding Stars for a Fix
Various devices have been invented to help an observer find individual stars. The most widely
used is the Star Finder and Identifier, formerly published by the U.S. Navy Hydrographic
Office as No. 2102D. It is no longer issued, having been replaced officially by the STELLA
computer program, but it is still available commercially. A navigational calculator or computer
program is much quicker, more accurate, and less tedious.
In fact, the process of identifying stars is no longer necessary because the computer or
calculator does it automatically. The navigator need only take sights and enter the required data.
The program identifies the bodies, solves for the LOP’s for each, combines them into the best fix,
and displays the lat./long. position. Most computer programs also print out a plotted fix, just as
the navigator might have drawn by hand.
The data required by the calculator or program consists of the DR position, the sextant
altitude of the body, the time, and the azimuth of the body. The name of the body is not
necessary because there will be only one possible body meeting those conditions, which the
computer will identify.
Computer sight reduction programs can also automatically predict twilight on a moving
vessel and create a plot of the sky at the vessel’s twilight location (or any location, at any time).
This plot will be free of the distortion inherent in the mechanical star finders and will show all
bodies, even planets, Sun, and Moon, in their correct relative orientation centered on the
observer’s zenith. It will also indicate which stars provide the best geometry for a fix.
Computer sight reduction programs or celestial navigation calculators are especially
useful when the sky is only briefly visible thorough broken cloud cover. The navigator can quickly
shoot any visible body without having to identify it by name, and let the computer do the rest.
Galaxy
A galaxy is a vast collection of clusters of stars and
clouds of gas. In a galaxy the stars tend to
congregate in groups called star clouds arranged in
long spiral arms. The spiral nature is believed due to
revolution of the stars about the center of the
galaxy, the inner stars revolving more rapidly than
the outer ones (Figure 1515).
The Earth is located in the Milky Way galaxy, a slowly
spinning disk more than 100,000 light years in
diameter. All the bright stars in the sky are in the
Milky Way. However, the most dense portions of the
galaxy are seen as the great, broad band that glows
in the summer nighttime sky. When we look toward
the constellation Sagittarius, we are looking toward
the center of the Milky Way, 30,000 light years away.
Despite their size and luminance, almost all other
galaxies are too far away to be seen with the
unaided eye. An exception in the northern
hemisphere is the Great Galaxy (sometimes called
Spiral nebula Messier 51, In Canes Venetici.
the Great Nebula) in Andromeda, which appears as a Satellite nebula is NGC 5195
faint glow. In the southern hemisphere, the Large
and Small Magellanic Clouds (named after Ferdinand
Magellan) are the nearest known neighbors of the
Milky Way. They are approximately 1,700,000 light
years distant. The Magellanic Clouds can be seen as
sizable glowing patches in the southern sky.
Locating the Pole Star
There are Fifty-eight selected navigational stars are given a special
status in the field of celestial navigation. Of the approximately 6,000
stars visible to the naked eye under optimal conditions, the selected
stars are among the brightest and span thirty-eight constellations of
the celestial sphere from the declination of 70° south to 89° north.
Many of the selected stars were named in antiquity by the ancient
Arabs, Greeks, Romans, and Babylonians.

The star Polaris, often called the "North Star", is treated specially due
to its proximity to the north celestial pole. When navigating in the
northern hemisphere, special techniques can be used with Polaris to
determine latitude or gyrocompass error. The other 57 selected
stars have daily positions given in nautical almanacs, aiding
the navigator in efficiently performing observations on them. A second
group of 115 "tabulated stars" can also be used for celestial
navigation, but are often less familiar to the navigator and require
extra calculations.

For purposes of identification, the positions of navigational stars —

expressed as declination and sidereal hour angle — are often rounded
to the nearest degree. In addition to tables, star charts provide an aid
to the navigator in identifying the navigational stars, showing
constellations, relative positions, and brightness.
Equatorial Stars in the Eastern Hemisphere
The equatorial region of the celestial sphere's eastern hemisphere includes 16
navigational stars from Alpheratz in the constellation Andromeda to Denebola in Leo. It
also includes stars from the constellations Cetus, Aries, Taurus, Orion, Canis Major and
Minor, Gemini, and Hydra. Of particular note among these stars are "the dog star"
Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, and four stars of the easily identified constellation
Orion.
Equatorial Stars in the Western Hemisphere
The equatorial region of the celestial sphere's western hemisphere includes 13
navigational stars from Gienah in the constellation Corvus to Markab in Pegasus. It also
includes stars from the constellations Virgo, Bootes, Libra, Corona Borealis, Scorpio,
Ophiuchus, Sagittarius, and Aquila. The variable star Arcturus is the brightest star in
this group.
Equatorial Stars in the Northern Hemisphere
The 11 northern stars are those with a
declination between 30° north and 90°
north. They are listed in order of
decreasing sidereal hour angle, or from
the vernal equinox westward across the
sky. Starting with Schedar in the
Cassiopeia constellation, the list
includes stars from the constellations
Auriga, the Great and Little Bears,
Draco, Lyra and Cygnus. The two
brightest northern stars are Vega and
Capella.
In the star chart to the right, declination
is shown by the radial coordinate,
starting at 90° north in the center and
decreasing to 30° north at the outer
edge. Sidereal hour angle is shown as
the angular coordinate, starting at 0° at
the left of the chart, and increasing
counter-clockwise.
Equatorial Stars in the Southern Hemisphere
The 18 southern stars are those with a
declination between 30° south and 90°
south. They are listed in order of
decreasing sidereal hour angle, or from
the vernal equinox westward across the
sky. Starting with Ankaa in the Phoenix
constellation, the list includes stars from
the constellations Eridanus, Carina,
Crux, Centaurus, Libra, Triangulum
Australe, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Pavo, and
Grus. Canopus, Rigil Kentaurus,
Achernar, and Hadar are the brightest
stars in the southern sky.
In the star chart to the right, declination
is shown by the radial coordinate,
starting at 90° north in the center and
decreasing to 30° north at the outer
edge. Sidereal hour angle is shown as
the angular coordinate, starting at 0° at
the right of the chart, and increasing
clockwise.
Locating the Pole Star

1. Locate the Big Dipper in the northern sky. Knowing how to find the Big Dipper is easy due to its large
size and distinct shape. Depending upon the time of the year constellation of stars may be tipped in
different directions as it rotates around the polestar.
2. As shown in the diagram, locate the two stars that form the outer edge of the Big Dipper.
3. Draw an imaginary line straight through the two stars of the dipper edge and toward the Little Dipper.
The line will point very close to the handle of the Little Dipper.
4. The brightest star in the Little Dipper is at the end of its handle. This is the North Star.
5. Congratulations, you now know how to find the North Star, Polestar, or Lodestar.
Locating the Southern Cross

The South Pole Star is the rather faint (5.5) sigma

Octantis, barely visible to the naked eye. The only
importance of knowing where the South Pole is
located lies in the fact that all stars in the Southern
Hemisphere will circle this point as the night proceeds.
The Zodiac
The zodiac is a circular band of the sky
extending 8° on each side of the ecliptic.
The navigational planets and the Moon are
within these limits. The zodiac is divided
into 12 sections of 30° each, each section
being given the name and symbol (“sign”)
of a constellation. These are shown in
Figure 1520. The names were assigned
more than 2,000 years ago, when the Sun
entered Aries at the vernal equinox, Cancer
at the summer solstice, Libra at the
autumnal equinox, and apricornus at the
winter solstice. Because of precession, the
zodiacal signs have shifted with respect to
the constellations. Thus at the time of the
vernal equinox, the Sun is said to be at the
“first point of Aries,” though it is in the
constellation Pisces.
The Zodiac
The zodiac is a circular band of the sky
extending 8° on each side of the ecliptic. The
navigational planets and the Moon are within these
limits. The zodiac is divided into 12 sections of 30°
each, each section being given the name and
symbol (“sign”) of a constellation. These are shown
in Figure 1520. The names were assigned more
than 2,000 years ago, when the Sun entered Aries
at the vernal equinox, Cancer at the summer
solstice, Libra at the autumnal equinox, and
apricornus at the winter solstice. Because of
precession, the zodiacal signs have shifted with
respect to the constellations. Thus at the time of
the vernal equinox, the Sun is said to be at the
“first point of Aries,” though it is in the constellation
Pisces.

Eclipses of the Sun and Moon.

The Ecliptic
The Earth is nearest the Sun during the northern hemisphere
winter. It is not the distance between the Earth and Sun that is
responsible for the difference in temperature during the
different seasons, but the altitude of the Sun in the sky and the
length of time it remains above the horizon. During the summer
the rays are more nearly vertical, and hence more
concentrated, as shown in Figure 519b. Since the Sun is above
the horizon more than half the time, heat is being added by
absorption during a longer period than it is being lost by
radiation. This explains the lag of the seasons. Following the
longest day, the Earth continues to receive more heat than it
dissipates, but at a decreasing proportion. Gradually the
proportion decreases until a balance is reached, after which the
Figure 1519a. Apparent motion of the Sun in the ecliptic.
Earth cools, losing more heat than it gains. This is analogous to
the day, when the highest temperatures normally occur several
hours after the Sun reaches maximum altitude at meridian
transit. A similar lag occurs at other seasons of the year.
Astronomically, the seasons begin at the equinoxes and
solstices. Meteorologically, they differ from place to place. Since

Figure 1519b. Sunlight in summer and winter.

Winter sunlight is distributed over a larger
area and shines fewer hours each day, causing
less heat energy to reach the Earth
The Zodiac

Due to precession of the equinoxes, the celestial

poles are slowly describing circles in the sky. The
north celestial pole is moving closer to Polaris,
which it will pass at a distance of approximately
28 minutes about the year 2102. Following this,
the polar distance will increase, and eventually
other stars, in their turn, will become the Pole
Star. The precession of the Earth’s axis is the
result of gravitational forces exerted principally
by the Sun and Moon on the Earth’s equatorial
bulge. The spinning Earth responds to these
forces in the manner of a gyroscope. Regression
of the nodes introduces certain irregularities
known as nutation in the precessional motion.
See Figure 1519c.

Figure 1519c. Precession and notation.

Finding Sun’s Declination

Knowing the approximate Latitude and Sun’s declination, it is

possible to find the sun’s azimuth from the almanac’s euphemists.
This is done when the sun is half it’s diameter above the horizon.
Taking a bearing on the sun and comparing it with its calculated
azimuth enables compass verification.
Finding Sun’s Declination

Knowing the approximate Latitude and Sun’s declination, it is

possible to find the sun’s azimuth from the almanac’s euphemists.
This is done when the sun is half it’s diameter above the horizon.
Taking a bearing on the sun and comparing it with its calculated
azimuth enables compass verification.
Navigational Intruments
The Echo sounder compute the depth of water by measuring the time it takes for a
pulse of sound to travel from the source to the sea bottom and return. A device
called a transducer converts electrical energy into sound energy and vice versa.
For basic hydrographic surveying, the transducer is mounted permanently in the
bottom of the survey vessel, which then follows the planned trackline, generating
soundings along the track.
Navigational Instruments
The RDF was the first radio navigation instrument. It picks up a Morse coded radio
signal from a land-based transmitter. And a onboard receiver with a directional
antenna takes bearing on the signal. Two or more bearing on several RDF stations
gives a cocked-hat position. It is mostly located on a lights house and sequence on a
same frequency. This allows the navigator to take cross bearing with out having to
switch between frequencies.
Navigational Instruments
GPS Navigator -- This GPS receiver is a precision navigation instrument utilizing the latest technology
available today to provide optimum performance from the GPS satellite and Beacon land signals received. As
with all other forms of radio signals, the ultimate navigation result is dependent upon the quality of these
signals. Radio signals may, on occasion, be distorted, jammed, or otherwise incorrect. As a result, your
position accuracy may occasionally be less than that which can normally be expected. The Global Positioning
System, commonly referred to as GPS, is a satellite navigation system developed by the U.S. Department of
Defense to provide both military and civilian users with highly accurate, worldwide, three dimensional
navigation and time. By receiving signals from orbiting GPS satellites, authorized users are able to
continuously navigate
Navigational Instruments
ARPA A computer-assisted radar data processing system which generates
predicted ship vectors based on the recent plotted positions. For such a system to
meet the specifications of the Inter Governmental Maritime Consultative
Organization
(IMCO), it must satisfy requirements with respect to detection, acquisition,
tracking, display, warnings, data display, and trial maneuvers.
Navigational Instruments
Digital chart either presented on a plotter or an ECDIS have the advantage of being easier
to read because information is organized in layers which can be displayed or hidden.
Advance ECDIS can display technology can display the digital and the radar picture at the
same time. It consist of a computer data base and a display system. It is not simply a digital
version of a paper chart. It introduced a new navigational methology which is very different
from paper chart including capabilities and limitations
Navigational Instruments
NAVTEX - is a maritime radio warning
system consisting of a series of coast stations
transmitting radio teletype (standard narrow-
band direct printing, called Sitor for Simplex
Telex Over Radio) safety messages on the
internationally standard medium frequency of
518 kHz. It is a GMDSS requirement for the
reception of MSI in coastaland local waters.
Coast stations transmit during previously
arranged time slots to minimize mutual
interference. Routine messages are normally
broadcast four times daily. Urgent messages
are broadcast upon receipt, provided that an
adjacent station is not transmitting. Since the
broadcast uses the medium frequency band, a
typical station service.
Navigational Instruments
INMARSAT-C - provides a store and forward data messaging
capability (but no voice) at 600 bits per second and was designed
specifically to meet the GMDSS requirements for receiving MSI data on
board ship. These units are small, lightweight and use an omni-directional
antenna.
Navigational Instruments
VHF RADIOTELEPHONE – It is equipped with Digital
Selective Calling (DSC) functions for all the necessary units
for DSC Service.
Glossary
ADJUSTMENT of COMPASS – the method of placing magnets and iron masses about
a compass so as to oppose the magnetism existing on the ship and her fittings.
AGONIC LINE – One of no variation.
ALEE – away from the direction of the wind, usually referring to the helm.
ALIDADE – an instrument for taking bearings.
ALTITUDE – the height of the body above the horizon. It is measure with a sextant
and Called observed altitude and in the case of the sun nedd correction for the dip,
refraction semi diameter, parallax and index error in order to obtain true altitude.
ALTITUDE AZIMUTH – a method ob obtaining bearing of the sun or star in by solving
the astronomical triangle for the azimuth or angle at the zenith.
ALTITUDE DIFFERENCE – the amount the computed altitude differs from the true
altitude of a body in the determination of position lines
AMIDSHIPS – usually in the line of keel, but sometime midway between the bow and
stern, usually corrupted to ‘midships’.
AMPLITUDE – the angle at the zenith between the prime vertical and the vertical
circle passing through the observed body.
ANNUAL VARIATION - the amount of the magnetic compass changes in a year, due
to changes in the earths’ line of force.
Glossary
ARCTIC CIRCLE – the southern limit of the arctic zone, which in Lat. 66° 32’ N
APHELION – is the point in the earth’s orbit that is farthest from the sun.
APOGEE – the point in the moon’s orbit that is farthest from the earth.
LINES OF APSIDES – the line connecting the perihelion and aphelion of the earth’s
orbit.
ARTIFICIAL HORIZON – a device by the use of which the altitude of a heavenly body
above the horizon can be obtained onland.
AUTOMATED SHIP – one in which the ship’s power is controlled and operated from
the bridge, thereby reducing the personnel of the engine department.
AZIMUTH CIRCLE – a metalic cicle made fit to a compass for the purpose of taking
azimuth.
BAROGRAPH – an instrument which automatically registers barometric pressure. It
consist of a cylinder driven by a clock gear, around which is secured a sheet of cross-
section paper.
BAROMETER – an instrument for measuring barometric pressure.
BEACONS – an aid to navigation usually unlighted, beacons takes various forms to be
conspicuous and for characteristics.
Glossary
BEARING – the direction of an object often expressed in in terms of compass point or
degrees.
BELL BUOY – a floating beacon equipped with a bell so installed as to ring by the
motion of the wave.
BINNACLE – a box or non-magnetic metallic container for the stowage of the
magnetic compass at the weather deck.
BINOCULARS – a double telescope arrange for both eyes used for look out.
BOAT COMPASS – a small box compass made convenient for use in small boats.
BOW and BEAM BEARING – a convenient and universal method of locating a ship’s
position by bearings of two known objects.
BOXING THE COMPASS – naming the points and quarter points if the compass from
north through south or north and return backwards. From old Spanish word “BOXAR’ or
to sail around.
BREACH – made by sea that break completely across a vessel.
BREADTH – the moulded breadth is the distance between the outer faces of the
frames.
BREAKWATER – an artificial embankment usually of rocks to break the force of the
seas and furnish shelter behind it.
Glossary
BREAST – to meet the sea.
BRIDGE – a elevated thwartship platform in which the vessel is navigated and all
activities on deck are in plain view.
CABLE – a term in measurement being 200 yards or one-tenth of a nautical mile.
CAN BUOY – a cylindrical buoy usually painted black, marked with an odd number
and indicates he port side of the channel when inward bound.
CANT – to turn a vessel in a river or harbor.
CANTLINE – the recess at the center of four casks stowed bilge and bilge.
CARDINAL POINTS – are the North, South ,East, and West of a compass.
CHANNEL – the deeper courses of a river.
CELESTIAL EQUATOR – the projection of the earth’s equator to the celestial sphere.
CELESTIAL HORIZON – is defined by the extension of the plane at the center of the
earth o the celestial sphere which is at right angles to a plumb line at the observer’s
position.
CELESTIAL LATITUDE – the angular distance of a point North or South of the ecliptic.
Glossary
CELESTIAL LONGITUDE – the arc of the ecliptic lying between the First Point of Aries
and the circle of latitude passing through the body.
CELESTIAL SPHERE – an imaginary sphere represented to us, in a way by the blue
sky of the heavens as its inner surface.
CELO – NAVIGATION- the science of finding a ship’s position by means of observation
of heavenly bodies and the mathematical calculations attending them.
CHART – are to the water and coast what maps are to the land.
CHART WORK – the laying off of courses and distance, plotting of positions and the
study of hydrographical and topographical features.
CHART SYMBOL – characters used on charts to represent the aids to navigation,
character of land and the bottoms.
CHART ROOM – compartment designed for the stowage of charts and books and
usually equipped with a table for chart work.
CHRONOMETER – A sea going clock fitted with gimbals to neutralize the motion of
the ship.
CHRONOMETERE ERROR –the amount the instrument is fast tor slow on correct GMT.
CICUMNAVIGATE – to sail around the world.
Glossary
CIRCUMPOLAR – a body is said to be circumpolar when during its diurnal revolution in
the heavens it does not set for the observer, remaining always above the horizon.
CLINOMETER – an instrument which indicates the pitch or roll of the ship according
as it is placed on a fore and aft thwartship line.
COAST PILOT – a man usually familiar with a certain coast along which he acts as a
pilot.
COASTWISE – a term pertaining to the navigation of the coast in distinction to
offshore navigation.
COMPASS – the most valuable instrument in navigation and as it directs the course of
the ship.
COMPASS COURSE – the direction of the ship’s head based on the ship’s compass.
COMPASS ERROR – the amount the ship’s compass is deflected from the true
direction by variation and deviation combined.
COMPASS POINT – a compass card is divided into 32 part or points and covering an
arc of 11.25°
CROSS STAFF – an old fashioned device used for measuring altitudes
Glossary
COMPASS ROSE – a graduated circle engraved on a chart from which
courses and bearing are taken with parallel rulers or triangles. It shows the
gyro rose and the magnetic rose and tells the magnetic variation of a certain
area.
COMPASS DIVIDERS – a plotting instrument with two adjustable legs used
to measure distances on the chart.
COMPASS COMPENSATION – the placing of bar magnets in such a manner
beneath a compass to counter act the semi-circular deviation. And by
setting the a sphere of soft irons at each side of the compass to rectify the
quadrantal deviation.
CONJUNCTION – two heavenly bodies are said to be in conjunction when
they pass over the other.
CONSTELLATION – group of stars.
COORDINATES – a system of lines planes or angles, by which with certain
data a position can be determined.
COURSE – the direction on the ship is steered
CROSS BEARING – are two or more bearings of as many known objects
taken and plotted on a chart.
Glossary
DANGER ANGLE – a method by which a navigator is warned by a compass
bearing when the course is leading into danger.
DANGER SECTOR – a rd sector of a light indicating the presence of rocks or
shoals within it.
DATUM – a level to which depths and elevations are referred
DEAD RECKONING – the calculation to ascertain the ship’s whereabouts by
using the courses steered and distances run.
DECLINATION – the angular distance a body North or South of the celestial
equator.
DEPRESSED POLE – the opposite of the elevated pole.
DEVIATION – an unnecessary divergence from the accepted course of a vessel.
DEVIATION TABLE – a tabulation of a ship’s heading on each compass point and the
deviation which appears when steering on each.
DIFFERENCE OF LATITUDE – the difference in degrees minutes and seconds between
two parallel of latitudes it is the distance between the parallel of the vessel’s departure
and the parallel of destination.
Glossary
DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE – the difference in degrees minutes and seconds
between two meridians that a vessel makes east and west along a parallel of middle
latitude.
DIP – a term applied to the descent of the sun after reaching its maximum altitude at
noon on the meridian.
DIURNAL – relates to a day; a phenomenon occurring daily.
DRIFT – a vessel’s leeway due to the velocity in which the current moves.
ECLIPSE – the total or partial obscuration of a heavenly body due to its
entering to the shadow of another body.
ECLIPTIC – a great circle of the celestial sphere which lies at an angle of
23° 27’ with the celestial equator.
ELEVATED POLE – the pole that is in the observer’s sky.
EQUATOR – a great circle whose plane is at right angles with the line of the
earth’s axis.
EQUINOCTIAL – the celestial equator.
EQUINOXES – the point in the orbit occupied by the earth.
Glossary
FALSE HORIZON – a condition inimical to the taking of good sights which is
caused by clouds shadows near the horizon.
FATHOM – equals to 6 feet ;
VERNAL EQUINOX – first point of Aries; the intersection of the ecliptic and
the celestial equator which the sun crosses in coming from North or South
declination in March.
FIX – the ship in position established on a chart by two or more bearings of
known landmarks.
FLINDERS BAR – a bar of soft iron placed vertically near the compass to
counteract the effect of vertical iron causing semi-circular deviation.
GEO-NAVIGATION – a part of navigation which embraces piloting and dead
reckoning in contradistinction to celo-navigation which comprises
observation of heavenly bodies.
GIBBOUS – phase of the moon from those of first quarter to full moon and
thence to the Last Quarter.
GIMBALS – a contrivance consisting of two concentric rings bearing at
opposite points on knife edge; one circle has the bearing for athwartship for
the pitching motion, and the other fore and aft for the rolling motion.
Glossary
GNOMONIC PROJECTION – particularly use for finding course and distance
by great circle sailing.
GREAT CIRCLE SAILING – thee practice of sailing along the great circle
passing through the point of departure and that of destination.
GREAT CIRCLES – circles whose plains cuts through the center of the
sphere dividing it into two equal parts.
GREENWICH APPARARENT TIME – the hour angle of the apparent or real
sun referred to 180° meridian. The midnight meridian of Greenwich.
GREENWICH HOUR ANGLE – the angle of the celestial pole between the
Greenwich meridian and the hour circle passing through the sun / star.
GREENWICH MEAN TIME – is measured from the passage of the mean sun
beginning at 180° meridians – the midnight meridian of Greenwich.
GREENWICH TIME OF SIDERIAL NOON – is the GMT when the First Point of
Aries is on the local meridian.
GYRO COMPASS – a electronic type of compass which is North seeking and
always relies on a constant electric power.
GYRO STABILIZER – the characteristic of a rotating gyroscope that keeps it
in the same plane unless over come by a greater force.
Glossary
HEIGHT of EYE – the distance in feet that the observer’s eye is above the
water when taking the altitude of a body.
HELMSMAN – the able bodies seaman who steers the ship
HIGH LATITUDES – those parallels remote from the equator.
HIGH SEAS – the ocean beyond 3 mile limit where no nation has special
privilege or jurisdiction.
HORIZON – the place where the sea and the sky meets.
HORIZON GLASS – usually a piece of glass which half of it is mirrored and
the other is clear.
HORSE LATITUDE – the region of high pressure area on the outer edge of
the trade where the light and variable wind prevails.
HOUR ANGLE – the angle at the pole between the meridian and the hour
circle passing through to the body being considered.
HOUR CIRCLE – a great circle of the celestial sphere passes from pole to
pole as do the meridians on the earth.
INCLINATION OF THE EARTH- the angle of 23° 27’ which the earth’s axis
take with the plane of its orbit.
Glossary
INDEX BAR – an arm pivoted at the top of the sextant
INDEX CORRECTION - correction necessitated by an error in sextant which
exist after the index and the horizon glass had been made perpendicular
with the frame.
INDEX ERROR – the error created by the index arm.
INDEX GLASS – a mirror erected perpendicular to the plane of the of a
sextant at the top or pivot of the instrument.
JURY RUDDER – an improvised contrivance by which a disabled vessel is
steered to port.
KNOT – a unit of measurement for speed (1 knot = 1 nautical mile/hour)
LANDFALL – a sighting or coming to land. The position of the land sighted
in coming in from the sea.
LANDMARK – conspicuous object or characteristic formation of land whose
position is known and which aids to navigator in establishing his position.
LATUITUDE – the distance in degrees, minutes and seconds of a ships
position or location of a port north or south of the equator.
Glossary
LINE OF POSITION –a line established by one or several method upon
which the ship is somewhere located.
LOCAL APPARENT TIME – an hour angle of the apparent sun measured
westward from the ship’s meridian.
LOCAL MEAN TIME – the hour angle of the mean sun measured westward
from the local meridian.
LONGITUDE - – the distance in degrees, minutes and seconds of a ships
position or location of a port east or west of the meridian Greenwich.
LUBBER’S LINE – the part of the compass which indicates the ship’s
heading or course.
LOOM – the loom of the light is reflection on the clouds when the light
itself is below the horizon.
MAGNETIC AZIMUTH – the bearing of a body uncorrected for variation.
MAGNETIC BEARING – the direction of the object as measure from the
magnetic compass as reference.
MAGNETIC DECLINATION – declinations measured from magnetic compass
Glossary
MAGNETIC MERIDIAN – a sweeping line which connects the North and
south magnetic poles/
MAGNETIC COURSE – a course followed by the ship based on the magnetic
compass.
MARINER’S COMPASS – an instrument available to the mariner consisting
of a card graduated to points and degrees.
MASTER COMPASS – the main compass of the gyroscope equipment.
MERCATOR CHART – a type of projection based on a cylinder.
MERCATOR SAILING – a kind of sailing technique by navigating on a
mercator chart.
MERCURIAL BAROMETER – an instrument for measuring the pressure of
the atmosphere. (760 mm. Hg / 29.92 in. Hg)
MIDDLE LATITUDE – the mean latitude between the that point of departure
and that of destination.
NADIR – the point on the celestial sphere 180° from the zenith.
NAUTICAL ALMANAC – a tabulation of the position of the heavenly bodies
relative to the Greenwich meridian and the equator for the use of the
navigator.
Glossary
NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY – the part of astronomy used in navigation of ships
at sea.
PARALLAX – the error applied to an observed altitude due to taking it from
a position in at the surface of the earth and not on its center.
PARALLEL of LATITUDES – circles that pass around the earth everywhere
parallel with the equator.
PELORUS – an instrument for the purpose of taking bearings and celestial
azimuths.
PRIME MERIDIAN – the meridian arbitrarily chosen as the origin of
longitudes.
PRIME VERTICAL – a great circle passing through the zenith and nadir east
or west points of the horizon.
RANGE – two or more objects in line with one another indicating a course
to steer, a danger to avoid, or a line of position.
RANGE LIGHT – two lighthouse or beacons that when in line indicates a
safe course or indicate a channel or danger.
RECIPROCAL BEARING – the opposite of bearing taken or steered course.
SET – the direction in which the current flow.
Glossary
SHADOW PIN – a device for finding bearing of an object.
SHOAL – an area of relative low water which usually breaks in heavy
weather.
SOLSTICE – the position of the earth in its orbit where the inclination of
the axis is is directly towards the or away from the sun.
STANDARD COMPASS – an instrument similar to other compasses but
placed in a locations remote from magmatic influence as practical.
STATUTE MILE – equals to 5,280 feet
STEERING COMPASS – a compass used by the helmsman to steer the ship.
TRACK – the path of the vessel on a voyage.
ZENITH DISTANCE –the angular distance from the zenith to a body.
ZODIACAL LIGHT – a phenomenon a faint white light that appear in the
wake of a setting sun and in advance of a rising sun.
ZONE TIME – standard time of the sea. Dividing the earth’s longitude by
15° which is equal to 1 hour.