Lecture 2: Life and Cells

Teaching should be such that what is offered

is perceived as a valuable gift and not as a hard duty
(Albert Einstein)
 COMPETENCY
Students, after mastering materials of the present
lecture, should be able
1. To explain the organization of living systems that
involves cells
2. To explain basic description of cells and cell theory
3. To explain cell structure and cell constituents
4. To illustrate the importance of cell as the building block
of live

9/4/2019 2
 LECTURE FLOW
I. INTRODUCTION
II. CELLS
 Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
 Animal and Plant Cells
III. PLANT CELL STRUCTURE
IV. PLANT TISSUE
 I. INTRODUCTION
Biological Organization
 Life is a performance of living systems, and systems are
considered alive when the systems are working, and
contrarily dead when the systems are not working

Electric current and Light

action to switch on/off

 Life systems can be understood from the biological

organization of living systems
Biological Organization

1. Subatomic 6. Tissue
Particles 7. Organ
2. Atoms 8. Organ
3. Molecules System
(Small 9. Organism
Molecules, 10. Population
Macromolecule
11. Species
s & Molecular
Assemblies) 12. Community

4. Organelle 13. Ecosystem

5. Cell 14. Biosphere

www.desktopclass.com/education/fafsc/levels-o...
1. Subatomic Particles: Protons, neutrons and electrons
are the main subatomic particles which reside in a
substance.
2. Atoms: Atoms are defined as the smallest unit or the basic
building blocks of matter which make up all objects. Atoms
are made up of equal number of protons and electrons
3. Molecules
1. Small Molecules: Larger molecules are made up of some building blocks
and these blocks are attributed as small molecules. Examples of such
molecules are amino acids, fatty acids, glucose, etc.
2. Macromolecules: Macromolecules are defined as large or gigantic
molecules which populate a cell and render the important functions of life.
Examples are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, etc.

3. Molecular Assemblies: These assemblies are organized sets which

comprise one or more molecular entity (i.e. the microtubule, conveyor belts
inside the cells, and the cell membrane or plasma membrane)
4. Organelle: Organelle means little organs and is a specialized
part of a cell (i.e. the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria,
etc.)
5. Cell: The smallest unit of life (living organisms), and is the
structural and functional units of organisms (i.e. bacteria, amoeba,
archaebacteria, etc, are all single-celled organisms, and humans
and many other organisms are multicellular)
6. Tissue: It is a group of cells with similar or different
characteristics, and attributed with a particular set of functions in
the body of the living organismn (i.e. meristematic and permanent
tissues in plants).
7. Organ: It is an organization of different types of tissues
8. Organ System: It is a group of organs for performing a broad
set of functions, particularly in multi-cellular organisms.
9. Organism: It can be regarded as the complete framework of
organ systems, organs, organelle and all other components which
work in their own specific way in order to carry out the various
processes of life (i.e. plants, animals, humans, bacterium, etc)
10. Population: A group of inter-breeding organisms of the same
species inhabiting a defined area is termed as a population
11. Species: Species is merely a defining term given to a specific
kind of organism
12. Community: A group of interacting organisms of different
species living in a given area is termed as a community.
13. Ecosystem: An ecosystem is made up of both biotic or abiotic
components of the environment such as the climate, landscape,
animals and plants; interaction of a group of organisms and their
environment, to be precise!
14. Biosphere: It is simply defined as the regions on, below, and
above the surface, and atmosphere of the Earth where living
organisms exist.
 II. CELLS
1. Basic Description
 Cells of plants are tiny (very small), measuring on
average about 10-100 mm across (1 cm = 100-1000
cells)
 Cells are
 the basic units of life, building blocks of organisms, the
smallest unit of living matter , and the structural and
functional units of all living organisms.
 the biological unit of an organism that is capable of
independent functioning - it can live on its own under
the right conditions
 basic units consisting of one or more nuclei,
cytoplasm, and various organelles, all surrounded by a
semipermeable cell membrane
2. History
• Robert Hooke. The cell was first discovered in 1665
by Robert Hooke examining very thin slices of cork
(gabus) and saw a multitude of tiny pores (banyak
pori2 kecil) that remarked looked like the walled
compartments of a honeycomb (sarang lebah)
which was then called
Micrographia. cells
The description
of these cells (which were
actually non-living cell walls),
without structure or function
understanding, was published
in Micrographia. His cell
observations gave no
indication of the nucleus and
other organelles found in most
living cells.
Significant Events in Cell Biology
 1655 - Robert Hooke gives first description of a cork tree cell.
 1674 - Leeuwenhoek views protozoa.
 1683 - Leeuwenhoek views bacteria.
 1831 - Robert Brown was first to identify the nucleus as an important
cell component.
 1838 - Schleiden and Schwann introduce what would become the
Cell Theory (after about 183 years).
 1857 - Kolliker describes mitochondria.
 1869 - Miescher isolates DNA for the first time.
 1882 - Kock identifies bacteria.
 1898 - Golgi discovers the Golgi apparatus.
 1931 - Ruska builds the first Transmission Electron Microscope.
 1953 - Watson and Crick propose structure of DNA double-helix.
 1965 - First commercial Scanning Electron Microscope produced.
 1997 - First sheep cloned.
 1998 - Mice cloned.
 2003 - Human genome DNA sequence draft completed.
3. Cell Theory
Cell theory refers to the idea that cells are the
basic unit of structure in every living thing.
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the basic living unit of organization for all living
things
3. All cells arise from preexisting cells
4. Cells contain all of the hereditary information

The modern tenets of the Cell Theory include:

1. all known living things are made up of cells.
2. the cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.
3. all cells come from pre-existing cells by division.
(Spontaneous Generation does not occur).
4. cells contains hereditary information which is passed from
cell to cell during cell division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
6. all energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs
within cells.
4. TYPE OF CELLS
Cells can be subdivided into two subcategories:
Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes
 Prokaryotes:
– the term means “before the nucleus”
– lack a nucleus (though they do have circular DNA)
and
– lack other membrane-bound organelles (though
they do contain ribosomes)
– Bacteria and Archaea are two divisions of
prokaryotes.
 Eukaryotes:
– have distinct nuclei and membrane-bound
organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes,
rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum,
vacuoles).
– possess organized chromosomes which store
genetic material.
Two types of cells
5. Animal and Plant cells
 Both animal (A) and plant (B) cells have
 a cell membrane (1),
 nucleus (2), and
 cytoplasm (3).
● Plant cells have
also
– a cell wall (4) and
– certain organelles,
notably chloroplasts,
which are unique to
plant cells
III. PLANT CELL STRUCTURE
1. Cytoplasm
2. Nucleoplasm
3. Nucleus –
largest organelle
4. Nucleolus
(nucleoli plural)
• Chromatin
• Chromosomes
5. Ribosomes
6. Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
• Smooth ER
• Rough ER
7. Golgi Complex
8. Lysosomes (in
animals)
9. Vacuoles
10. Mitochondria
11. Chloroplasts
12. Other plastids
13. Microbodies
14. Cytoskeleton
15. Cell Wall
16. Membrane

An electron micrograph of a wheat leaf cell. Note the ring of

cytoplasm-containing chloroplast that surrounds a large vacuole
(courtesy of Kitty Plaskitt)
1. Cytoplasm
 material outside of nucleus, consists
of fluid, particles and membranes
2. Nucleoplasm
 material inside nucleus
3. Nucleus – largest organelle
 Nuclear envelope
 Double Membrane envelope with
many nuclear pores
 Function: holds the DNA
 Parts: Nucleolus

4. Nucleolus (nucleoli plural)

 Site of ribosome assembly
 Ribosomes leave through pores
and are found free in the
cytoplasm or associated with
Endoplasmic reticulum
Genetic material in the Nucleus
 Chromatin
 Seen in cells that
are not dividing
 Decondensed DNA
associated with
RNA and proteins
 Chromosomes
 Seen in cells that
are dividing
 Condensed DNA in
a highly organized
and compact form
 nucleolus: rRNA;
ribosome synthesis
5. Ribosomes
 Protein manufacture, organelles that are part of the protein
synthesis machinery
 Free : cytosol; protein function in cell
 Bound : endoplasmic reticulum; membranes,
organelles, and export
 Function: makes proteins
6. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
 sets of membranes continuous
with the nuclear and plasma
membranes
 Membranes act to divide up
the cytoplasm into
compartments and channels
 Function: The internal delivery
system of the cell
 Smooth ER
 no ribosomes;
 Functions: synthesis of lipids,
phosolipid & steroid ; metabolism
of carbohydrates; detoxification of
drugs and poisons

 Rough ER
 with ribosomes;
 Functions: synthesis of secretory
proteins (glycoproteins) &
membrane production
7. Golgi Complex
 Cisternae: flattened membranous sacs (look like a
stack of pita bread)
 Function: packages, modifies, and transports
materials to different location inside/outside of the cell

– sets of smooth membranes derived from the ER

– Functions: sorting and modifying proteins, ultimately
transports products to the plasma membrane or are
stored in the cytoplasm, also produces the lysosomes
8. Lysosomes (in
animals)
 sac of hydrolytic enzymes
(powerful digestive
enzymes); digestion of
macromolecules
 Function as the cell’s
recycling center by
digesting worn-out
organelles or materials
ingested by cell:
Phagocytosis
 Autophagy: recycle cell’s own
organic material
 Tay-Sachs disease~lipid-
digestion disorder
– Rheumatoid arthritis is due to damage in joints due to leaky
white blood cell lysosomes
9. Vacuoles
 membrane-bound sacs
(larger than vesicles)
 Food (phagocytosis)
 Contractile (pump
excess water)
 Central (storage in
plants) tonoplast
membrane
10. Mitochondria
 quantity in cell
correlated with
metabolic activity;
 cellular respiration;
 double membranous
(phospholipid);
 cristae/matrix;
 intermembrane space;
 contain own DNA
11. Chloroplasts
 Type of plastid; Site of photosynthesis & Also double
membrane bound
 thylakoids (flattened disks); grana (stacked
thylakoids); stroma; Pigments (chorophyl and others)
 Also have their own DNA molecules
12. Other plastids
 leukoplasts
 transform
glucose in to
starch
 store starch
and are
colorless, and
 chromoplasts
 store colored
pigments
 Elaioplast
 storelipid in plants
 house oil body deposits
13. Microbodies
 Various organelles which
regulate different
metabolic reactions such
as
 peroxisomes, single
membrane
 break down hydrogen
peroxide then converted to
water (H2O2  H2O +O2),
 metabolism of fatty acids,
 detoxification of alcohol
(liver)
 glyoxysomes are
important in germinating
seeds
 Organelles involved with
Energy Production and
Utilization
14. The Cytoskeleton
 Fibrous network in
cytoplasm
 Support, cell motility,
biochemical regulation
 Microtubules:
 thickest;
 tubulin protein;
 shape, support, transport,
chromosome separation
 Microfilaments :
 Thinnest;
 actin protein filaments;
 motility, cell division, • Intermediate filaments:
shape
– middle diameter;
– keratin; shape, nucleus
anchorage
15. Cell Wall
16. Membrane
• The membrane that
surrounds a cell is
made up of proteins
and lipids.
• Depending on the
membrane’s location
and role in the body,
lipids can make up
anywhere from 20 to
80 percent of the
membrane, with the
remainder being
proteins.
• Cholesterol, which is not found in plant cells, is a type
of lipid that helps stiffen the membrane.
 IV. Plant Tissues
 Vascular Tissue
 Transport
 Support

 Ground Tissue
 Synthesis of Sugars
 Storage
 Support

 Dermal Tissue
 Protection
 Vascular Tissues
 Vascular Tissues are Xylem and Phloem
 Xylem and Phloem add structural support
 Xylem - conducts water and minerals, long
tapering cells that act as pipes of a sort
 Phloem - conducts food
 Ground tissue
 Parenchyma
 Simple tissue found throughout the plant. Functions
include photosynthesis, food storage, secretion
 Colenchyma
 Provides structural support
 Found just under the stem epidermis and along leaf
veins
 Cells are alive at maturity and function only when they
are alive
 Sclerenchyma
 Hard structural support (trees)
 may be alive or dead and still function structurally
 one type of sclerenchyma is fiber (wood)
 Dermal
 Epidermis - outermost layer composed of
single layer of ground parenchyma cells
 Periderm - many layers thick, found on
woody plants, replaces epidermis,
parenchyma cells
 Basic Types of Cells and
Tissues
 Types of Plant Body
1. Primary plant body
1. Derived from shoot and root apical meristems
2. Composed of primary tissues
3. Constitutes the herbaceous parts of a plant
4. An herb consists only of a primary plant body.
2. Secondary plant body
1. Derived from meristems other than apical meristems
(didiskusikan kemudian)
2. Composed of secondary tissues: wood and bark
3. Constitutes the woody, bark-covered parts of a plant
 Three Basic Types of Plant Cells and
Tissues, Based on Cell Wall
 Parenchyma:
 Thin primary walls.
 Typically alive at maturity.
 Many functions.
 Collenchyma:
 Unevenly thickened primary walls.
 Typically alive at maturity.
 Provide plastic support.
 Sclerenchyma:
 Primary walls plus secondary walls.
 Many dead at maturity.
 Provide elastic support and some (tracheary elements) are
involved in water transport.
 1. Parenchyma
 Parenchyma cells have only
primary walls that remain thin
 Parenchyma tissue is a mass
of parenchyma cells.
 This is the most common type
of cell and tissue, constituting
all soft parts of a plant.
 Parenchyma cells are active
metabolically and usually
remain alive once they mature.
Parenchyma cells of geranium; their
 Numerous subtypes are walls (green) are thin, and their
specialized for particular tasks vacuoles are large and full of watery
contents that did not stain. Nuclei were
present in all cells, but because these
cells were so large and the section was
cut so thin, most nuclei were cut away
during the preparation of this slide. One
nucleus is still present (× 160).
 Photosynthetic parenchyma………
Chlorenchyma cells from a leaf of privet.
Because these cells are small and the
section is thicker than that in (a), most of
these cells still have nuclei (red). The green
structures close to the wall (blue) are
chloroplasts. The large white areas are
intracellular spaces where the cells have
pulled away from each other. The spaces
permit carbon dioxide to diffuse rapidly
throughout the leaf (× 160).
 Chlorenchyma cells are
parenchyma cells involved in
photosynthesis;
 Abundance of chloroplasts,
and the thinness of the wall is
advantageous for allowing light
and carbon dioxide to pass
through to the chloroplasts.
 Other types of pigmented cells,
as in flower petals and fruits,
also must be parenchyma cells
with thin walls that permit the
pigments in the protoplasm to
be seen.
 Glandular
parenchyma
 Glandular cells that secrete
nectar, fragrances, mucilage,
resins, and oils are also
parenchyma cells; they typically
contain few chloroplasts but
have elevated amounts of
dictyosomes and endoplasmic
reticulum.
A resinal canal in a pine leaf. The white
 They must transport large area is the central cavity where the resin is
stored, and the cells that line the cavity are
quantities of sugar and minerals glandular parenchyma cells that synthesize
and secrete the resin. The innermost cells
into themselves, transform them have thin walls, which permit movement of
metabolically, then transport the resin from the cells to the cavity. The outer
cells have thick walls, which provide
product out. strength; cells with thick walls are not
parenchyma cells (× 160).
 Transport parenchyma
 Transfer cells are parenchyma cells that mediate the
short-distance transport of material by means of a
large, extensive plasma membrane capable of holding
numerous molecular pumps.

Transfer cells in the salt gland of Frankenia grandifolia. The wall

ingrowths increase the surface area of the cell membrane, providing
more room for salt-pumping proteins in the membrane
 Other function…
 Some parenchyma cells function by dying at maturity.
 Structures such as stamens and some fruits must open and
release pollen or seeds; the opening may be formed by
parenchyma cells that die and break down or are torn
apart.
 Large spaces may be necessary inside the plant body;
some of these are formed when the middle lamella
decomposes and cells are released from their neighbors.
 In other cases, the space is formed by the degeneration of
parenchyma cells.
 In a few species, such as milkweeds, as parenchyma cells
die, their protoplasm is converted metabolically into
mucilage or a milky latex
 2. Collenchyma
 Collenchyma cells have a primary wall that remains
thin in some areas but becomes thickened in other
areas, most often in the corners.

Masses of collenchyma cells often occur in the outer parts of stems and leaf stalks; this is part of
a Peperomia stem. The collenchyma forms a band about 8 to 12 cells thick. The inner part of the
stem is mostly parenchyma (× 50). (b) Look closely between the cells and notice the fine dark
linesthe original, thin primary walls and middle lamellas. In collenchyma cells, the primary wall
gradually becomes thicker at the corners so the protoplast becomes rounded. No intercellular
spaces are present (× 150).
 Collenchyma plasticity
 The nature of this wall is important in
understanding why it exists and how it
functions in the plant.
 The wall of collenchyma exhibits
plasticity,
 The ability to be deformed by pressure
or tension and to retain the new shape
even if the pressure or tension ceases.
 Collenchyma is present in elongating
shoot tips that must be long and flexible,
such as those of vining plants like
grapes, as a layer just under the
epidermis or as bands located next to
vascular bundles, making the tips
stronger and more resistant to breaking
Collenchyma support ………….
 If a vine or other collenchyma-rich tissue is cut off
from its water supply, it wilts and droops; the
collenchyma is unable to hold up the stem.
 Parenchyma cells are needed in the inner tissues
for support.
 Collenchyma and turgid parenchyma work
together like air pressure and a tire: The tire or
inner tube is extremely strong but is useless for
support without air pressure.
 Similarly, air pressure is useless unless it is
confined by a container. In stems, the tendency
for parenchyma to expand is counterbalanced by
the resistance of the collenchyma, and the stem
becomes rigid
 Collenchyma take place…
 Because the walls of collenchyma cells are thick,
they require more glucose for their production.
 Collenchyma is usually produced only in shoot tips
and young petioles, where the need for extra
strength justifies the metabolic cost.
 Subterranean shoots and roots do not need
collenchyma because soil provides support, but
the aerial roots of epiphytes such as orchids and
philodendrons have a thick layer of collenchyma.
 3. Sclerenchyma
 Sclerenchyma, has
both a primary wall
and a thick secondary
wall that is almost
always lignified.
 These walls have the
property of elasticity
 They can be
deformed, but they
snap back to their A mass of fiber cells in the leaf of Agave.
These are large, heavy, tough leaves, and the
original size and shape fiber masses give the leaves strength. Notice
when the pressure or that each cell consists mostly of thick
tension is released secondary cell wall; the small white space in
each is an area where the protoplast had
been before it died (× 150).
 In mature organ…
 Sclerenchyma cells
develop mainly in
mature organs that
have stopped growing
and have achieved
their proper size and
shape.
 Deforming forces such
as wind, animals, or This is the same mass of fibers as in (a)
but
snow would probably viewed with polarized light. The thick
be detrimental secondary wall shines brightly because its
cellulose molecules are packed in a tight,
crystalline form, giving the wall extra
strength (× 150).
 Interaction P-C-S
 If mature organs had
collenchyma for
support, they would be
reshaped constantly
by storms or animals,
which of course would
not be optimal.
 For example, while
growing and
elongating, a young
leaf must be A stem of bamboo was treated with a
supported by mixture of nitric acid and chromic acid to
collenchyma if it is to dissolve the middle lamellas and allow the
continue to grow. cells to separate from each other. In this
preparation you can see that the fibers are
long and narrow. The shorter, wider cells
are parenchyma
 Interaction P-C-S
 But once it has achieved
its mature size and
shape, some cells of the
leaf can mature into
sclerenchyma and
provide elastic support
that maintains the leaf's
shape.
 Unlike collenchyma,
sclerenchyma supports This portion of a leaf of water lily contains
large, irregularly branched cells that have
the plant by its strength stained red. These are known as
alone; if sclerenchyma- astrosclereids (star-shaped sclereids).
rich stems are allowed to The large white spaces are giant
wilt, they remain upright intercellular spaces; this is an
and do not droop. aerenchyma type of parenchyma (× 40).
They are shown at higher magnification in
 Type…

These are sclereids; they are more or less cuboidal, definitely not long like fibers.
These have remained alive at maturity, and nuclei and cytoplasm are visible in
several. The blue-stained channels that cross the walls are pits with cytoplasm.
The pits of each cell connect with those of the surrounding cells so that nutrients
can be transferred from cell to cell, keeping them alive
A star-shaped sclereid, showing only part of its long, arm-like
extensions. The ends of most of the extensions were cut off
when the material was cut to make this slide. Tiny cubic
crystals are present in the wall
 Parenchyma and collenchyma cells can
absorb water so powerfully that they swell
and stretch the wall, thereby growing;
sclerenchyma cell walls are strong enough
to prevent the protoplast from expanding.
 The rigidity of sclerenchyma makes it
unusable for growing shoot tips because it
would prevent further shoot elongation.
 Sclerenchyma Type…..
 Sclerenchyma cells are of
two types conducting
sclerenchyma and
mechanical sclerenchyma.
 The latter type is
subdivided into long fibers
and short sclereids both of
which have thick
secondary walls.
 Because fibers are long,
they are flexible and are
most often found in areas
where strength and
elasticity are important
 Wood…
 The wood of most flowering
plants contains abundant
fibers, and their strength
supports the tree while their
elasticity allows the trunk
and branches to sway in the
wind without breaking
(usually) or becoming Wood is composed of several
permanently bent types of cells. The numerous
small cells with thick walls and
 The fiber-rich bark is extremely narrow lumens are
important not in holding up fibers. These give the wood
the tree but in resisting strength and flexibility. The large
round cells that appear to be
insects, fungi, and other empty are vessel elements,; the
pests small cells with thin walls and
large lumens are wood
parenchyma cells (× 60)
 Sclereids
 Sclereids are short and more or less
isodiametric (cuboidal).
 Because sclereids have strong walls oriented
in all three dimensions, sclerenchyma tissue
composed of sclereids is brittle and inflexible.
 Masses of sclereids form hard, impenetrable
surfaces such as the shells of walnuts and
coconuts
 there would be disadvantageous because the
soft seed inside might be crushed even
though the shell remained unbroken.
 Living sclerenchyma
 When strength or resistance is
the only selective advantage
of sclerenchyma, the
protoplast usually dies once
the secondary wall has been
deposited.
 But in some species, certain
sclerenchyma cells, especially
fibers, remain alive at maturity
and carry out an active
metabolism
 These living sclerenchyma
cells most often are involved
in storing starch or crystals of
calcium oxalate.
 Some have rather thin These fiber cells have nuclei, indicating
secondary walls, but in others that they are living cells. The secondary
the secondary walls are just walls are
as thick as those of fibers that thick, but not so thick as the walls in The
die at maturity and provide small dots visible in the walls are pits;
only support. these are much narrower than the pits of
Figure 5.10d. Leaf of Smilax (× 150).
 Sclerenchyma division….
 Like all cells, sclereids and fibers develop from cells
produced by cell division; when newly formed, they are
small and have only a primary wallthey are
parenchyma cells.
 If the cell is to differentiate into a sclereid, it may
expand only slightly, but if it is to develop into a fiber, it
elongates greatly.
 When immature sclereids and fibers reach their final
size, the cellulose-synthesizing rosettes of the plasma
membrane begin to deposit the secondary wall.
 As this wall becomes thicker and is impregnated with
lignin, it becomes waterproof