MT 633: INORGANIC AND ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

UNIT 1
CHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS
mdliu.2018
agvargas. 2018
The importance of studying Chemistry
• “The world around us is made of chemicals.” - Bettelheim
et al.
• Even the interior of every living system is made up of
matter
• How the body functions can be explained by
(bio)chemicals
• Raw materials that are used to treat diseases are
chemicals
• Modern medicine therefore depends in chemistry or
biochemistry
• Students of the health professions need an understanding
of basic chemistry
Outline
1.1 Overview of chemistry
1.2 Fundamental chemistry laws
1.3 Atom
1.3.1 Atomic structure
1.3.2 The Periodic table
1.3.3 Shells, subshells and orbitals
1.3.4 Electron configuration
1.4 Chemical bond
1.4.1 Electronegativity
1.4.2 Ionic bond
1.4.3 Covalent bond
1.4.4 Bond polarity
What is Chemistry?
Chemistry is the Science that
deals with matter: its nature,
properties and the
transformation from one form
to another.
What is matter and what is it made of?
Classification of matter
What is matter and what is it made of?

The Basic Unit of matter is the atom.

Whose (atomic) theory is it?

Democritus’? or Dalton’s?
The Atom is the smallest particle of an element.
• It retains the chemical properties of the element.

http://gph.is/2azZKTH
Classification of Matter
Important terms:
A substance is a form of matter that has a definite
composition and distinct properties.
Element consists of identical atoms.
Compound is made up of two or more elements in a fixed
ratio by mass.
Molecule is a tightly bound combination of two or more
atoms that act as a single unit.

Water Gold Sugar

H2O Au C12H22O11
The Elements
Periodic table of elements Which are the elements
necessary for life?
Elements
Monatomic elements consist of single atoms; for example,
helium (He) and neon (Ne).

Diatomic elements: There are seven elements that occur

as diatomic molecules:
• H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2

Polyatomic elements: Some elements have three or more

atoms per molecule:
• O3, P4, S8
• Diamond has millions of carbon atoms bonded
together to form one gigantic cluster.
Compound: A Water Molecule
Representations of a water molecule
Classification of Matter
The Mixtures
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in
which the substances retain their distinct identities.

Homogeneous mixture – composition of the mixture is the

same throughout.

soft drink, milk, solder

Heterogeneous mixture – composition is not uniform

throughout.

iron filings in sand, blood

Outline
1.1 Overview of chemistry
1.2 Fundamental chemistry laws
1.3 Atom
1.3.1 Atomic structure
1.3.2 The Periodic table
1.3.3 Shells, subshells and orbitals
1.3.4 Electron configuration
1.4 Chemical bond
1.4.1 Electronegativity
1.4.2 Ionic bond
1.4.3 Covalent bond
1.4.4 Bond polarity
Fundamental Chemical Laws
Law of conservation of mass
• Discovered by Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)
• Matter can be neither created nor destroyed.
Fundamental Chemical Laws

Law of constant composition

• Demonstrated by Joseph Proust (1754-1826)
• Any compound is always made up of elements in the
same proportion by mass.

Sample A = 10.000 g Sample B = 27.000 g

1.119 g H 3.021 g H
8.881 g O 23.979 g O

2 parts Hydrogen
1 part Oxygen
Fundamental Chemical Laws
Law of multiple proportions
• Different compounds made up of the same element differ
in the number of atoms of each kind that combine.

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John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
and the Chemistry Laws

1. All matter is composed of very

tiny particles called atoms.

John Dalton (1766-1844)

2. All atoms of the same element

have the same chemical
properties. Atoms of different
elements have different
chemical properties.
John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
and the Chemistry Laws
John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
3. In a chemical reaction, no atom of any element
disappears or is changed into an atom of another element.

Law of conservation of mass

• Discovered by Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)
• Matter can be neither created nor destroyed.
John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
and the Chemistry Laws
4. Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of
two or more of the same or different kinds of atoms or
elements.
5. Molecule are a tightly bound combination of two or
more atoms that acts as a single unit.

Law of constant composition

• Demonstrated by Joseph Proust (1754-1826)
• Any compound is always made up of elements in the
same proportion by mass.
Sample A = 10.000 g Sample B = 27.000 g
1.119 g H 3.021 g H
8.881 g O 23.979 g O
2 parts Hydrogen
1 part Oxygen
Outline
1.1 Overview of chemistry
1.2 Fundamental chemistry laws
1.3 Atom
1.3.1 Atomic structure
1.3.2 The Periodic table
1.3.3 Shells, subshells and orbitals
1.3.4 Electron configuration
1.4 Chemical bond
1.4.1 Electronegativity
1.4.2 Ionic bond
1.4.3 Covalent bond
1.4.4 Bond polarity
The Atom.

http://gph.is/2azZKTH
Atomic Structure: Subatomic particles

• The unit of mass is given in atomic mass units (amu).

• One amu is defined as the mass of an atom of carbon
with 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus.
1 amu = 1.6605 x 10-24 g
Atomic Structure
Relative sizes of the
atomic nucleus and
an atom.

I
n
s
e
r
t

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Mass and Atomic Number
Mass number (A): The sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Atomic number (Z): The number of protons in the nucleus

of an atom.

Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number
Isotopes
Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons.
Exercise
Give the number of protons, neutrons and electrons of
the following:
1. 178O
2. 19980Hg
3. 6329Cu
4. 4820Ca
5. 19779Au
Atomic Weight
Most elements found on Earth are mixtures of isotopes.
• Chlorine is 75.77% chlorine-35 (18 neutrons) and
24.23% chlorine-37 (20 neutrons).

Atomic weight: The weighted average of the masses (in

amu) of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element.
Exercise
Calculate the average atomic weight of following:
1. The element rhenium (Re) has two naturally occurring
isotopes, 185Re and 187Re. Relative abundance and
masses were given: 62.60% with mass 186.956 amu for
187Re and 37.40% with mass 184.953 amu for 185Re.

Calculate the average atomic weight.

2. The element Lithium (Li) has two naturally occurring

isotopes, 6Li and 7Li. Relative abundance and masses
were given: 7.42% with mass 6.015 amu for 6Li and
92.58% with mass 7.016 amu for 7Li .
Outline
1.1 Overview of chemistry
1.2 Fundamental chemistry laws
1.3 Atom
1.3.1 Atomic structure
1.3.2 The Periodic table
1.3.3 Shells, subshells and orbitals
1.3.4 Electron configuration
1.4 Chemical bond
1.4.1 Electronegativity
1.4.2 Ionic bond
1.4.3 Covalent bond
1.4.4 Bond polarity
Periodic Table
It is a chart showing all the elements arranged in columns
with similar chemical properties.

Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907)

• Arranged the known elements in
order of increasing atomic
weight
• Observed that certain sets of
properties recur periodically.
The Periodic Table of Elements
Outline
1.1 Overview of chemistry
1.2 Fundamental chemistry laws
1.3 Atom
1.3.1 Atomic structure
1.3.2 The Periodic table
1.3.3 Shells, subshells and orbitals
1.3.4 Electron configuration
1.4 Chemical bond
1.4.1 Electronegativity
1.4.2 Ionic bond
1.4.3 Covalent bond
1.4.4 Bond polarity
How are the electrons arranged in an atom?
Electrons are confined in specific regions of space called
principal energy levels/shells (n = 1, 2, 3…)

The closer an electron to

the nucleus, it’ll be held n=1 n=2 n=3
more strongly, the harder
to remove from the atom.
Subshells
Shells are divided into subshells (s, p, d, f).
Subshell defines the shape of the orbital
s orbitals p orbitals

d orbitals
Subshells
The number of subshells in shell is equal to n.

n no. of subshells subshells

1 1 1s
2 2 2s, 2p
3 3 3s, 3p, 3d
4 4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f
Orbitals
Subshell contains one or more atomic orbitals (refers to
the physical region or space where the electron can be
found).

Each orbital can only hold two electrons, and they must
have opposite spins.

Subshell no. of orbitals no. of e—

s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14

Pairing of electron spins

Energy of orbitals in a multi-electron atom
Energy depends on size (n) and shape (l)
Outline
1.1 Overview of chemistry
1.2 Fundamental chemistry laws
1.3 Atom
1.3.1 Atomic structure
1.3.2 The Periodic table
1.3.3 Shells, subshells and orbitals
1.3.4 Electron configuration
1.4 Chemical bond
1.4.1 Electronegativity
1.4.2 Ionic bond
1.4.3 Covalent bond
1.4.4 Bond polarity
Electron Configuration
Electron configuration of an atom is the description of the
orbitals that its electron occupy.

Rule 1: Orbitals fill in the order of increasing energy from

lowest to highest.

Rule 2: Each orbital can hold up to two electrons with

spins paired.

Rule 3: When there is a set of orbitals of equal energy,

each orbital becomes half filled before any of them
becomes completely filled.
Exercise
Example: 8O 1s22s22p4

Give the electron configuration for the ff. atoms:

1. 4Be
2. 11Na
3. 16S
4. 20Ca
5. 35Br
Electron Configuration
Orbital box diagram
• A box represents an orbital.
• An arrow represents an electron.
• A pair of arrows with heads in opposite directions
represents a pair of electrons with paired spins.

Example: 6C
Electron configuration
Expanded: 1s2 2s2 2p x1 2py 1
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz Condensed: 1s2 2s2 2p 2
Electron Configuration
Noble gas notation
• The symbol of the noble gas immediately preceding the
particular atom indicates the electron configuration of
all filled shells

Example: 6C
Electron
Configuration Noble Gas
Orbital box diagram (condensed) Notation
2 2 2 2 2
1s 2s 2p [He]2s 2p
Electron Configuration
Valence shell: The outermost shell.
Valence electron: An electron in the valence shell.

Lewis dot structure:

• The symbol of the element represents the nucleus and
filled shells.

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Electron Configuration
Electron configuration and the Periodic Table.

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 Ground State Electron Configurations of the Elements

ns2np6
ns1

ns2np2
ns2np1

ns2np3

ns2np4
ns2np5
ns2

d10
d1

d5

4f

5f
Electron Configuration

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Outline
1.1 Overview of chemistry
1.2 Fundamental chemistry laws
1.3 Atom
1.3.1 Atomic structure
1.3.2 The Periodic table
1.3.3 Shells, subshells and orbitals
1.3.4 Electron configuration
1.4 Chemical bond
1.4.1 Electronegativity
1.4.2 Ionic bond
1.4.3 Covalent bond
1.4.4 Bond polarity
Lewis Model of Bonding
In 1916, Gilbert N. Lewis pointed out that the lack of
chemical reactivity of the noble gases indicates a high
degree of stability of their electron configurations.

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Chemical bond
• Forces that hold groups of atoms together and make
them function as a unit.
• The valence electrons usually involved in formation of
chemical bond.

In 1969, Gilbert N. Lewis pointed

out that the lack of chemical
reactivity of the noble gases.

• Atoms in stable compounds usually have a noble gas

electron configuration.
Lewis Model of Bonding
OCTET RULE: The tendency of atoms to react in ways
that achieve an outer shell of eight valence electrons.

HOW?
• An atom may lose or gain enough electrons to acquire
a filled valence shell and become an ion.
Examples:
Formation of cation Na (11 electrons): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Na+ (10 electrons): 1s2 2s2 2p6

Formation of anion Cl (17 electrons): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Cl— (18 electrons): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Lewis Model of Bonding
OCTET RULE: The tendency of atoms to react in ways
that achieve an outer shell of eight valence electrons.

HOW?
• An atom may share electrons with one or more other
atoms to acquire a filled valence shell.
Example:
Formation of Chemical Bond
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BOND
• An atom may lose or gain enough electrons to acquire
a filled valence shell and become an ion. An ionic bond
is the result of the force of attraction between a cation
and an anion.

• An atom may share electrons with one or more other

atoms to acquire a filled valence shell. A covalent bond
is the result of the force of attraction between two
atoms that share one or more pairs of electrons.
Ionic or Covalent bond?
Electronegativity: A measure an atom’s attraction for the
electrons it shares in a chemical bond with another atom.
• It is a periodic property and depends on nuclear charge
and the distance of the valence electrons from the
nucleus.

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Electronegativity

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Ionic Bond
Results from electrostatic attractions among ions, which
are formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from
one atom to another.
• The compound formed by the combination of an anion
and a cation is called an ionic compound.
• Difference in electronegativity: 1.9 or greater

Example:
Covalent Bond
Formed by sharing one or more pairs of electrons.
• The pair of electrons is shared by both atoms and, at
the same time, fills the valence shell of each atom.
Examples:
Formation of H2

Formation of F2
Types of Covalent Bond
Nonpolar covalent bond
• Equal sharing of electrons between atoms in a
molecule
• Symmetrical distribution of electron density
• To be nonpolar, the two atoms involved in the bond
must be the same element (same electronegativity) to
share equally.
Types of Covalent Bond
Polar covalent bond
• Unequal sharing of electrons between atoms in a
molecule
• Asymmetrical distribution of electron density
• To be a polar covalent bond the two atoms involved in
the bond must have different electronegativity.
Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
EXERCISE
Examples:

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ASSIGNMENT
Answer the ff. items:

Page 57b 2-21*, 2-30

57d 2-61*
57e 2-84 (add: Draw the orbital box diagram)
57f 2-101, 2-102

90a 3-29*
90e 3-90
90f 3-104

*Write a statement describing why the statement is false.

66
The Octet Rule
Example: In losing one electron, a sodium atom forms a
sodium ion, which has the same electron configuration as
neon.

Na (11 electrons): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Na+ (10 electrons): 1s2 2s2 2p6

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The Octet Rule
Example: In gaining one electron, a chlorine atom forms a
chloride ion, which has the same electron configuration
as argon.
Chlorine atom (17 electrons): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
Chloride ion (18 electrons): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

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The Octet Rule
The octet rule gives us a good way to understand why
Group 1A-7A elements form the ions they do; but it is not
perfect:
• Ions of Period 1A and 2A elements with charges
greater than +2 are unstable. For example, boron does
not lose its three valence electrons to become B3+, nor
does carbon lose its four valence electrons to become
C4+ .
• Ions of Period 1B and 2B elements with charges
greater than -2 are also unstable. For example, carbon
does not gain four valence electrons to become C4- .
• The octet rule does not apply to Group 1B-7B
(transition elements), most of which form ions with two
or more different positive charges.
70
Naming Cations
• Elements of Groups 1A, 2A, and 3A form only one type of
cation.
• The name of the cation is the name of the metal followed
by the word “ion”.

71
Naming Cations
For naming cations derived from transition and inner
transition elements, most of which form more than one
type of cation, there are two options:
• Use a Roman numeral enclosed in parentheses
following the name of the element to show the charge.
or
• Use the suffix -ous to show the lower positive charge
and the suffix -ic to show the higher positive charge.

72
Naming Cations

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Naming Anions
For monatomic (containing only one atom) anions, add
ide to the stem name.
• Here are the monatomic anions we deal with most
often:

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Naming Polyatomic Ions

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Forming Chemical Bonds
According to the Lewis model:
• An atom may lose or gain enough electrons to acquire
a filled valence shell and become an ion. An ionic bond
is the result of the force of attraction between a cation
and an anion.
• An atom may share electrons with one or more other
atoms to acquire a filled valence shell. A covalent bond
is the result of the force of attraction between two
atoms that share one or more pairs of electrons.

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Electronegativity
Electronegativity A measure an atom’s attraction for the
electrons it shares in a chemical bond with another atom.
• On the Pauling scale, fluorine, the most electronegative
element is assigned a value of 4.0, and all other
elements are assigned values relative to fluorine.
• Electronegativity is a periodic property and depends on
nuclear charge and the distance of the valence
electrons from the nucleus.

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Electronegativity

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Ionic Compounds
According to the Lewis model, an ionic bond is formed by
the transfer of one or more valence electrons from an
atom of lower electronegativity to an atom of higher
electronegativity.
• The more electronegative atom gains one or more
valence electrons and becomes an anion.
• The less electronegative atom loses one or more
valence electrons and becomes a cation.
• The compound formed by the combination of an anion
and a cation is called an ionic compound.

79
Forming an Ionic Compound
In forming sodium chloride, NaCl, one electron is
transferred from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom.

We use a single-headed curved arrow to show

this transfer of one electron.

80
Formulas of Ionic Compounds
The total number of positive charges must equal the total
number of negative charges.
• Lithium ion, Li+, and bromide ion, Br-, form LiBr.
• Barium ion, Ba2+, and iodide ion, I-, form BaI2.
• Aluminum ion, Al3+, and sulfide ion, S2-, form Al2S3.
• Sodium ion, Na+, and bicarbonate ion, HCO3-, form
NaHCO3.
• Potassium ion, K+, and phosphate ion, PO43-, form
K3PO4.

81
Naming Ionic Compounds
To name a binary ionic compound:
• The name of the metal from which the positive ion is
formed followed by the name of the negative ion;
subscripts are not directly specified in the name.
• AlCl3 is aluminum chloride
• LiBr is lithium bromide
• Ag2S is silver sulfide
• MgO is magnesium oxide
• KCl is potassium chloride
• LiH is lithium hydride

82
Naming Ionic Compounds
To name binary ionic compounds of metals that form two
or more different cations:
• For systematic names, use a Roman numeral enclosed
in parentheses following the name to show the charge
on the metal ion; for common names, use the
appropriate -ous, -ic suffix.
• CuO is copper(II) oxide; cupric oxide
• Cu2O is copper(I) oxide; cuprous oxide
• FeO is iron(II) oxide; ferrous oxide
• Fe2O3 is iron(III) oxide; ferric oxide

83
Naming Ionic Compounds
To name ionic compounds that contain polyatomic ions:
• Name the positive ion first (using the appropriate rules)
followed by the name of the negative ion.
• NaNO3 is sodium nitrate
• CaCO3 is calcium carbonate
• NaH2PO4 is sodium dihydrogen phosphate
• NH4OH is ammonium hydroxide
• FeCO3 is iron(II) carbonate; ferrous carbonate
• Fe2(CO3)3 is iron(III) carbonate; ferric carbonate
• CuSO4 is copper(II) sulfate; cupric sulfate
• BaH2 is barium hydride

84
Forming a Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is formed by sharing one or more pairs
of electrons.
• The pair of electrons is shared by both atoms and, at
the same time, fills the valence shell of each atom.
• Example: in forming H2

85
Polarity of Covalent Bonds
Although all covalent bonds involve sharing of electron
pairs, they differ in the equality of the sharing:
• Nonpolar covalent bond Electrons are shared equally.
• Polar covalent bond Electron sharing is not equal.
• The equality of the sharing depends on the relative
electronegativities of the bonded atoms.

86
Polarity of Covalent Bonds
Examples:

87
Polarity of Covalent Bonds
In a polar covalent bond:
• the more electronegative atom attracts the shared
electrons more strongly and acquires a partial negative
charge; indicated by d- or the head of a crossed arrow.
• the less electronegative atom attracts the shared
electrons less strongly and acquires a partial positive
charge; indicated by d+ or the tail of a crossed arrow.

88
Drawing a Lewis Structure
1. Determine the number of valence electrons in the
molecule. For a cation, subtract one electron for each
positive charge on it. For an anion, add one electron for
each negative charge on it.
2. Determine the connectivity of atoms.
3. Connect the atoms by single bonds.
4. Show bonding electrons as a single line; show
nonbonding electrons as a pair of Lewis dots.
5. In a single bond, atoms share one pair of electrons; in a
double bond, they share two pairs, and in a triple bond
they share three pairs.

89
Lewis Structures

90
Lewis Structures
Practice problems:
• Draw a Lewis structure for hydrogen peroxide, H2O2.

• Draw a Lewis structure for methanol, CH3OH.

• Draw a Lewis structure for acetic acid, CH3COOH.

91
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Atoms of Period 2 elements use 2s and 2p orbitals for
bonding:
• These four orbitals can contain a maximum of 8
electrons; hence the octet rule.
Atoms of Period 3 elements have one 3s orbital, three 3p
orbitals, and five 3d orbitals:
• These nine orbitals can accommodate more than eight
electrons, by using 3d orbitals; period 3 atoms can
have more than eight electrons in their valence shells.

92
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Phosphorus

Sulfur

93
Molecular Compounds
Molecular compound A compound in which all bonds are
covalent.
Naming binary molecular compounds:
• The less electronegative element is named first (it is
generally written first in the formula).
• Prefixes “di-”, tri-”, etc. are used to show the number of
atoms of each element; the prefix “mono-” is omitted
when it refers to the first atom, and is rarely used with
the second atom. Exception: carbon monoxide
• NO is nitrogen oxide (common name: nitric oxide)
• SF2 is sulfur difluoride
• N2O is dinitrogen oxide (common name: laughing gas)

94
Resonance
For many molecules and ions, no single Lewis structure
provides a truly accurate representation.
Figure 3-3 Three Lewis strictures for the carbonate ion.

95
Resonance
Linus Pauling - 1930s
• Many molecules and ions are best described by writing
two or more Lewis structures. These molecules or ions
are said to exhibit resonance.
• Individual Lewis structures are called contributing
structures.
• Double-headed (resonance) arrows are placed between
individual contributing structures.
• The molecule or ion is a hybrid of the various
contributing structures.

96
Resonance
Figure 3-4 The carbonate ion represented as a hybrid of
three equivalent contributing structures.

97
Resonance
All contributing structures must:
1. Have the same number of valence electrons.
2. Obey the rules of covalent bonding.
• No more than 2 electrons in the valence shell of H.
• No more than 8 electrons in the valence shell of a 2nd
period element.
• 3rd period elements, such as P and S, may have up to
12 electrons in their valence shells.
3. Differ only in distribution of valence electrons; the
position of all nuclei must be the same.
4. Have the same number of paired and unpaired electrons.

98
Curved Arrow
Curved arrow A symbol used to show the redistribution
of valence electrons:
• the tail of the arrow identifies a pair of electrons whose
location is changing.
• the head of the arrow identifies the the new location of
the involved pair of electrons.
In using curved arrows, there are only two allowed types
of electron redistribution:
• from a bond to an adjacent atom.
• from an atom to an adjacent bond.

99
VSEPR Model
Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR)
• Valence electrons of an atom may be involved in
forming single, double, or triple bonds or they may be
unshared.
• Each arrangement of electrons creates a negatively
charged region of electron density around a nucleus.
• Because like charges repel each other, the various
regions of electron density around an atom spread so
that each is as far away as possible from the others.

100
VSEPR Model
Predict the shape of a
methane molecule, CH4.
• The Lewis structure shows
carbon surrounded by four
regions of electron density.
• According to VSEPR, the
four regions radiate from
carbon at angles of
109.5°. The electron pair
geometry is tetrahedral,
and the shape of the
molecule is tetrahedral.
• Figure 3-6 The shape of
methane molecule.
101
VSEPR Model
Figure 3-7 The shape of the
ammonia molecule, NH3.
• The Lewis structure
shows nitrogen
surrounded by four
regions of electron
density.
• According to VSEPR, the
four regions radiate from
nitrogen at angles of
109.5°. The electron
pair geometry is
tetrahedral, and the
shape of the molecule is
pyramidal.
102
VSEPR Model
Figure 3-8 The shape of a
water molecule, H2O.
• The Lewis structure
shows oxygen
surrounded by four
regions of electron
density.
• The electron pair
geometry is tetrahedral,
and the shape of the
molecule is bent.
• The measured H-O-H
bond angle is 104.5°.

103
VSEPR Model
Figure 3-9 The shape of a formaldehyde CH2O.
• The Lewis structure shows carbon surrounded by three
regions of electron density.
• According to the VSEPR, the three regions radiate from
carbon at angles of 120°. The electron pair geometry
is trigonal, and the molecule is trigonal planar.

104
VSEPR Model
Figure 3-9 The shape of an ethylene molecule, C2H4.
• The Lewis structure shows carbon surrounded by three
regions of electron density.
• According to VSEPR, the three regions radiate from
carbon at angles of 120°. Each carbon is trigonal
planar, and the shape of the molecule is planar.

105
VSEPR Model
Figure 3-10 The shape of an acetylene molecule, C2H2.
• The Lewis structure shows carbon surrounded by two
regions of electron density.
• According to VSEPR, the two regions radiate from each
carbon atom at an angle of 180° and the shape of the
molecule is linear.
• The measured H-C-C bond angle is 180°.

106
VSEPR Model

107
Molecular Polarity
A molecule will be polar if:
• it has polar bonds and
• its centers of partial positive and partial negative
charges do not coincide with the result that one region
of the molecule attains a net partial positive charge and
another attains a partial negative charge.
Carbon dioxide, CO2, has two polar C=O bonds but,
because of its geometry, CO2 is a nonpolar molecule.

108
Molecular Polarity
Ammonia, NH3, has three polar bonds and, because of its
geometry, is a polar molecule.

109
Molecular Polarity
Water, H2O, has two polar bonds and, because of its
geometry, is a polar molecule.

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Molecular Polarity
Both dichloromethane, CH2Cl2, and formaldehyde, CH2O,
have polar bonds and are polar molecules. Acetylene,
C2H2, is a nonpolar molecule.

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Chapter 3 Chemical Bonds

End
Chapter 3
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