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WATER

Water is a common chemical substance that is essential

for the survival of all known forms of life. In typical usage,
water refers only to its liquid form or state, but the
substance also has a solid state, ice, and a gaseous state,
water vapor or steam.
Chemical formula H2O: one molecule of water has two
hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen
atom.
 Saltwater oceans hold 97% of surface water,
glaciers and polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land
surface water such as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%.

Water moves continually through a cycle of

evaporation or transpiration (evapotranspiration),
precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea.

Clean, fresh drinking water is essential to human and

other life.
TYPES

According to state
solid - ice
liquid - water
gaseous - water vapor
 TYPES

According to occurrence :
Ground water
Melt water
Meteoric water
Connate water
Fresh water
Surface water
Mineral water – contains much minerals
Brackish water
Dead water – strange phenomenon which can occur when a layer of
fresh or brackish water rests on top of denser salt water, without the two
layers mixing. It is dangerous for ship traveling.
Sea water
Brine
TYPES

According to uses :

 Tap water
 Bottled water
 Drinking water or potable water – useful for everyday drinking,
without fouling, it contains balanced minerals that are not
harmful to health (see below)
 Purified water, laboratory-grade, analytical-grade or reagent-
grade water – water which has been highly purified for specific
uses in science or engineering. Often broadly classified as
Type I, Type II, or Type III, this category of water includes, but
is not limited to the following:
– distilled water
– double distilled water
– deionized water
Types

According to other features:

 Soft water – contains less minerals
 Hard water– from underground, contains more minerals
 distilled water, double distilled water, deionized water - contains
no minerals
 Water of crystallization — water incorporated into crystalline
structures
 Hydrates — water bound into other chemical substances
 Heavy water – made from heavy atoms of hydrogen -
deuterium. It is in nature in normal water in very low
concentration. It was used in construction of first nuclear
reactors.
 Tritiated water
The major chemical and physical
properties of water are:

 Water is a tasteless, odorless liquid.

 Water is transparent.
 Since oxygen has a higher electro negativity
than hydrogen, water is a polar molecule.
 High amount of surface tension, caused by
the weak interactions
 the water molecules to stick to one another is
the hydrogen bond.
CONTD…..

 Water also has high adhesion properties because of

its polar nature.
 Water is a very strong solvent, referred to as the
universal solvent,
solvent dissolving many types of
substances.
 Substances that will mix well and dissolve in water
are known as "hydrophilic" (water-loving)
substances, while those that do not mix well with
water (e.g. fats and oils), are known as
"hydrophobic" (water-fearing) substances.
 WATER - USAGE
 Water fit for human consumption is called drinking water or
potable water.
 Water that is not potable can be made potable by filtration or
distillation (heating it until it becomes water vapor, and then
capturing the vapor without any of the impurities it leaves
behind), or by other methods (chemical or heat treatment that
kills bacteria).
 Water that is not fit for drinking but is not harmful for humans
when used for swimming or bathing is called by various names
other than potable or drinking water, and is sometimes called
safe water, or "safe for bathing".
 Chlorine is a skin and mucous membrane irritant that is used to
make water safe for bathing or drinking.
 Drinking water is often collected at springs,
extracted from artificial borings in the ground,
or wells.
 Other water sources are rainwater and river
or lake water.
 This surface water, however, must be purified for human
consumption. This may involve removal of undissolved
substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes.
 Popular methods are filtering with sand which only removes
undissolved material, while chlorination and boiling kill harmful
microbes.
 Distillation does all three functions. More advanced techniques
exist, such as reverse osmosis. Desalination of abundant
ocean or seawater is a more expensive solution used in coastal
arid climates.
Textile industry uses a large amount of water from the manufacturing of
fiber to the finished fully furnished fabric.
Water is used in
Boilers -for washing,
Sizing &desizing,
Dyeing & printing,
Mercerizing,
Width settlement of the fabric, etc.

All these above processes consume a large amount of water as well as

produce high risk pollutants for water impurification.So,to get rid of
these problems industries use ETP plant for purification and
recycling of waste water.
 Wet processing
• Wet processing includes the main processes of fabric preparation, namely desizing, bleaching,
mercerizing, dyeing, printing, and other specific treatments. These phases treat fabrics with
chemical and liquor baths and often require several washing, rinsing, and drying steps,
generating significant wastewater effluents. The recommended pollution prevention and control
techniques for the finishing pretreatment steps include the following:
•

• Selection of water soluble and biodegradable lubricants for knitted fabrics instead of mineral oil
and wash them with water;
•

• Use of organic solvent washing for non water soluble lubricants;

•

• The thermo fixing step may be performed before the washing step. Air emissions generated from
the sterner should be treated by dry electro filtration. The oil separated should be collected to
limit effluent contamination;
•

• Residual liquor should be minimized through reduced application, reduced tank volumes and
padding liquor recycling;
•

• Using mechanical dewatering equipment to reduce water content of the incoming fabric and
reduce energy consumption in sterner frame.
 Desizing
• Desizing operations may generate effluents with significant concentrations of organic matters and solids. BOD
and COD loads from desizing may be significant (35 to 50 percent of the total load), and COD concentrations up
to 20,000 mg/I may be generated. Recommended pollution prevention and control techniques include:
•

• Selection of raw material with low add-on techniques (e.g. pre-wetting of the warp yarn);
•

• Selection of more bio-eliminable sizing agents (e.g.-modified starches, certain galactomannans, polyvinyl alcohol,
and certain polyacrylates);
•

• Application of enzymatic or oxidative desizing with starch and modified starch sizing agents, followed by washing
systems;
•

• Integration of de-sizing / scouring and bleaching in a single step to reduce effluent generation (e.g. reuse of
bleach rinse water in desizing);
•

• Recovery and reuse of specific water-soluble synthetic sizing agents (e.g. PVA, poly-acrylates, and carboxy-
methyl cellulose) by ultra-filtration.  
 Sizing machinery
1.TENSION UNIT WITH GUIDE
ROLLERS & BARS
2.S.S. PRE-DRYING CYLINDER
(OPTIONAL)
3.PRE-BUSHING UNIT WITH SUCTION
4.SINGEING CHAMBER WITH EXHAUST
5.WATER-COOLED ROLLER
6.WATER-COOLED BURNER
7.CARBURETOR WITH BLOWER
8.STEAM QUENCHING DEVICE
9.POST BRUSHING WITH SUCTION
(OPTIONAL)
10.DE-SIZING UNIT ST-12/ST-15
11.SQUEEZING MANGLE 3 TONS
12.MAIN DRIVE (A.C. MOTOR WITH
FREQUENCY CONTROLLER)
 Suspended particles, including colloids
 Dissolved inorganic salts
 Dissolved organic compounds ,Micro-organisms, Pyrogens
,Dissolved gases, Carbon dioxide, which dissolves in water to
give weakly acidic carbonic acid
 Sodium salts
 Silicates leached from sandy river beds
 Ferrous and ferric iron compounds derived from minerals and
rusty iron pipes
 Chlorides from saline intrusion
 Aluminum from dosing chemicals and minerals
 Phosphates from detergents
 Nitrates from fertilizers
The challenges for an ultra-pure
water purification system are to:

 Remove the bacteria present in the feed

water.
 Prevent bacteria from entering the system
and re-contaminating it.
 Inhibit the growth of bacteria in the system.
 Ensure that minimal bacteria are present in
the product water.
 Boiler feed water is water used to supply
("feed") a boiler to generate steam or hot
water. At thermal power stations the feed
water is usually stored, pre-heated and
conditioned in a feed water tank and
forwarded into the boiler by a boiler feed
water pump.
Untreated waters, containing
impurities may lead to the following
problems in boilers:

The water required for boiler feed purposes i.e for

steam generation should be of very high quality
and thus requires a lot of treatment.
 Scale and sludge formation
 Boiler Corrosion
 Caustic Embrittlement
 Priming and foaming
The feed water has to be specially
conditioned to avoid problems in the
boiler and downstream components:

 Corrosion- By use of a deaerator.

Remnants can be removed chemically, by
use of oxygen scavenger.
 Deposits / Sediments / Fouling- Deposits
reduce the heat transfer in the boiler, reduce
the flow rate and eventually block boiler
tubes.
 Effluent Treatment Plants or ETPs are used by leading
companies in the pharmaceutical and chemical industry to
purify water and remove any toxic and non toxic materials or
chemicals from it. These plants are used by all companies for
environment protection.

Application of ETP Plants

 Pharmaceuticals
 Chemicals
 Water waste management systems
 Leather industry and tanneries
Water purification is the process of removing
undesirable chemical and biological contaminants from
raw water.
STEPS INVOLVED:
# Pre-treatment
# pH adjustment
# Flocculation
# Sedimentation
# Filtration
# Dis-infection
 Pre-treatment
•Pumping and containment - The majority of water must be pumped from its
source or directed into pipes or holding tanks. To avoid adding contaminants to
the water, this physical infrastructure must be made from appropriate materials
and constructed so that accidental contamination does not occur.
•Screening - The first step in purifying surface water is to remove large debris
such as sticks, leaves, trash and other large particles which may interfere with
subsequent purification steps. Most deep groundwater does not need screening
before other purification steps.
•Storage - Water from rivers may also be stored in bank side reservoirs for
periods between a few days and many months to allow natural biological
purification to take place. This is especially important if treatment is by slow sand
filters. Storage reservoirs also provide a buffer against short periods of drought or
to allow water supply to be maintained during transitory pollution incidents in the
source river.
•Pre-conditioning - Many waters rich in hardness salts are treated with soda-ash
(Sodium carbonate) to precipitate calcium carbonate out utilizing the common-ion
effect.
•Pre-chlorination - In many plants the incoming water was chlorinated to
minimize the growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. Because of
the potential adverse quality effects , this has largely been discontinued
 pH Adjustment

• Distilled water has an pH of 7 (neither alkaline nor acidic) and sea

water has an average pH of 8.3 (slightly alkaline).

• If the water is acidic (lower than 7), lime or soda ash is added to
raise the pH. Lime is the more common of the two additives
because it is cheap, but it also adds to the resulting water hardness.

• If the water is alkaline, acid (HCl) or carbon dioxide (CO2) may

be added in some circumstances to lower the pH
 Flocculation

• Flocculation is a process which clarifies the water.

Clarifying means removing any turbidity or color so that
the water is clear and colorless. Clarification is done by
causing a precipitate to form in the water which can be
removed using simple physical methods.

• Coagulants or flocculating agents that may be used

include:
- Iron (III) hydroxide.
-Aluminium hydroxide.
-Aluminium hydroxychloride
 Sedimentation

• Water exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation

basin, also called a clarifier or settling basin. It is a large tank with
slow flow, allowing floc to settle to the bottom.

• The sedimentation basin is best located close to the flocculation

basin so the transit between does not permit settlement or floc
break up.

• The cost of treating and disposing of the sludge can be a significant

part of the operating cost of a water treatment plant.
 Filtration

• After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to
remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc.
• The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water moves
vertically through sand which often has a layer of activated carbon
or anthracite coal above the sand.
• The top layer removes organic compounds, which contribute to
taste and odour. The space between sand particles is larger than
the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough.
Most particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore
spaces or adhere to sand particles.
• Effective filtration extends into the depth of the filter. This property
of the filter is key to its operation: if the top layer of sand were to
block all the particles, the filter would quickly clog.
 Disinfection

• Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful

microbes and also by adding disinfectant chemicals in
the last step in purifying drinking water.
• Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass
through the filters. Possible pathogens include viruses,
bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Campylobacter and
Shigella, and protozoan, including G. lamblia and other
cryptosporidium.
• In most developed countries, public water supplies are
required to maintain a residual disinfecting agent
throughout the distribution system, in which water may
remain for days before reaching the consumer.
• A water softener reduces the dissolved calcium, magnesium, and to some
degree manganese and ferrous iron ion concentration in hard water.

These "hardness ions" cause 3 major kinds of undesired effects:

• First, metal ions react with soaps and calcium-sensitive detergents,

hindering their ability to lather and forming a precipitate.
• Second, calcium and magnesium carbonates tend to precipitate out as hard
deposits to the surfaces of pipes and heat exchanger surfaces. In a
pressurized system, this can lead to failure of the boiler.
• Third, the presence of ions in an electrolyte, in this case, hard water, can
also lead to galvanic corrosion, in which one metal will preferentially corrode
when in contact with another type of metal, when both are in contact with an
electrolyte.
REFERANCES

N.E.M Business Solutions 

www.weikipedia.com
www.google.co.in
www.aolsearch.com
www.swastiktextilecom