1 Inductance and Transformers Chapter19

Chapter
19
Inductance
Topics Covered in Chapter 19

19-1: Induction by Alternating Current
19-2: Self-Inductance L
19-3: Self-Induced Voltage vL
19-4: How vL Opposes a Change in Current
19-5: Mutual Inductance LM
19-6: Transformers
© 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Topics Covered in Chapter 19
 19-7: Transformer Ratings
 19-8: Impedance Transformation
 19-9: Core Losses
 19-10: Types of Cores
 19-11: Variable Inductance
 19-12: Inductances in Series or Parallel
 19-13: Energy in Magnetic Field of Inductance
 19-14: Stray Capacitive and Inductive Effects
 19-15: Measuring and Testing Inductors
McGraw-Hill
19-1: Induction by
Alternating Current
 Induced voltage is the result of flux cutting
across a conductor.
 This action can be produced by physical motion
of either the magnetic field or the conductor.
 Variations in current level (or amplitude)
induces voltage in a conductor because the
variations of current and its magnetic field are
equivalent to the motion of the flux.
 Thus, the varying current can produce induced
voltage without the need for motion of the
conductor.
 The ability of a conductor to induce voltage in
itself when the current changes is called self-
inductance, or simply inductance.
19-1: Induction by
Alternating Current
At point A, the current is zero and there is no flux.

At point B, the positive direction of current provides some field
lines taken here in the counterclockwise direction.
Fig. 19-1: Magnetic field of an alternating current is effectively in motion as it expands and
contracts with the current variations.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
19-1: Induction by
Alternating Current
Point C has maximum current and maximum counterclockwise flux.

At point D there is less flux than at C. Now the field is collapsing
because of reduced current.
19-1: Induction by
Alternating Current
Point E with zero current, there is no magnetic flux. The field can be
considered collapsed into the wire.
The next half-cycle of current allows the field to expand and collapse
again, but the directions are reversed.
When the flux expands at points F and G, the field lines are clockwise.
From G to H and I, this clockwise field collapses into the wire.
 The symbol for inductance is L, for linkages of magnetic
flux.
VL
L=
di / dt
 VL is in volts, di/dt is the current change in amperes per

second.
 The henry (H) is the basic unit of inductance.
 One henry causes 1 V to be induced when the current
is changing at the rate of 1 A per second.
Examples
 The current in an inductor changes from 12 to 16 A in
1 s. How much is the di/dt rate of current change in
amperes per second?
 The current in an inductor changes by 50 mA in 2 µs.
How much is the di/dt rate of current change in
amperes per second?
 How much is the inductance of a coil that induces 40
V when its current changes at the rate of 4 A/s?
 How much is the inductance of a coil that induces
1000 V when its current changes at the rate of 50 mA
in 2 µs?
 Inductance of Coils
 The inductance of a coil depends on how it is wound.
 A greater number of turns (N) increases L because
more voltage can be induced (L increases in
proportion to N).
 More area enclosed by each turn increases L.
 The L increases with the permeability of the core.
 The L decreases with more length for the same
number of turns, as the magnetic field is less
concentrated.
Calculating the Inductance of a Long Coil
air-core d iron-core
symbol symbol
(μ r = 1) (μr >> 1)
N 2A
L = μr 1.26 × 10−6 H
l
Where:
 L is the inductance in henrys.
 μr is the relative permeability of the core
 N is the number of turns
 A is the area in square meters
 l is the length in meters
 Typical Coil Inductance Values
 Air-core coils for RF applications have L values in
millihenrys (mH) and microhenrys (μH).
 Practical inductor values are in these ranges:

 1 H to 10 H (for iron-core inductors)
 1 mH (millihenry) = 1 × 10-3 H
 1 µH (microhenry) = 1 × 10-6 H
 Formula: vL = L ()di
dt
 Induced voltage is proportional to

inductance (L).
 Induced voltage is proportional to the rate of

current change:
()di
dt
Energy Stored in the Field
LI 2
Energy = Where the energy is in joules:
L is the inductance in henrys
2
I is the current in amperes
http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/index.html
Examples
 How much is the self-induced voltage across a 4-H
inductance produced by a current change of 12 A/s?
 The current through a 200-mH L changes from 0 to

100 mA in 2 µs. How much is vL ?
19-4: How vL Opposes
a Change in Current
 Lenz’ Law states that the induced
voltage produces current that opposes
the changes in the current causing the
induction.
 The polarity of vL depends on the
direction of the current variation di.
 When di increases, vL has polarity that
opposes the increase in current.
 When di decreases, vL has opposite
polarity to oppose the decrease in
current.
 In both cases, the change in current is
opposed by the induced voltage.
 Mutual inductance (LM) occurs when current flowing
through one conductor creates a magnetic field which
induces a voltage in a nearby conductor.
 Two coils have a mutual inductance of 1 H when a
current change of 1A/s induces 1 V in the other coil.
 Unit: Henrys (H)
 Formula:
L M = k L 1L 2
Coefficient of coupling, k, is the fraction of total flux from
one coil linking another coil nearby.
 Specifically, the coefficient of coupling is
k = flux linkages between L1 and L2 divided by
flux produced by L1
 There are no units for k, because it is a ratio of two
values of magnetic flux. The value of k is generally
stated as a decimal fraction.
 The coefficient of coupling is increased by placing the
coils close together, possibly with one wound on top of
the other, by placing them parallel, or by winding the
coils on a common core.
 A high value of k, called tight coupling, allows the
current in one coil to induce more voltage in the other.
 Loose coupling, with a low value of k, has the opposite
effect.
 Two coils may be placed perpendicular to each other
and far apart for essentially zero coupling to minimize
interaction between the coils.
Loose coupling Tighter coupling Unity coupling Zero coupling
Fig. 19-8: Examples of coupling between two coils linked by LM. (a) L1 or L2 on paper or plastic
form with air core; k is 0.1. (b) L1 wound over L2 for tighter coupling; k is 0.3. (c) L1 and L2 on the
same iron core; k is 1. (d) Zero coupling between perpendicular air-core coils.
Calculating LM
 Mutual inductance increases
with higher values for
primary and secondary
inductances.
 LM = k L1  L2
where L1 and L2 are the self-
inductance values of the two
coils, k is the coefficient of
coupling, and LM is the
mutual inductance.
19-6: Transformers
 Transformers are an
important application of
mutual inductance.
 A transformer has two or
more windings with mutual
inductance.
 The primary winding is
connected to a source of ac
power.
 The secondary winding is
connected to the load.
Fig. 19-11: Iron-core power transformer.

19-6: Transformers
The transformer transfers power from the primary to the secondary.
Transformer steps up voltage (to 100V) and steps current down (to 1A)
Fig. 19-9: Iron-core transformer with 1:10 turns ratio. Primary current IP induces secondary
voltage VS, which produces current in secondary load RL.
19-6: Transformers
 A transformer can step up or step down the voltage
level from the ac source.
A transformer is a device that Primary Secondary Load

uses the concept of mutual
inductance to step up or step Step-up (VLOAD > VSOURCE)
down an alternating voltage.
Primary Secondary Load
Step-down (VLOAD < VSOURCE)
19-6: Transformers
Turns Ratio
 The ratio of the number of turns in the primary to the
number in the secondary is the turns ratio of the
transformer.
 Turns ratio equals NP/NS.
where NP equals the number of turns in the primary and
NS equals the number of turns in the secondary.
 The turns ratio NP/NS is sometimes represented by the
lowercase letter a.
19-6: Transformers
 The voltage ratio is the same as the turns ratio:
VP / VS = NP / NS
 VP = primary voltage, VS = secondary voltage
 NP = number of turns of wire in the primary
 NS = number of turns of wire in the secondary
 When transformer efficiency is 100%, the power at the

primary equals the power at the secondary.
 Power ratings refer to the secondary winding in real

transformers (efficiency < 100%).
19-6: Transformers
 Voltage Ratio VL = 3 x 120
= 360 V
Step-up (1:3) 1:3
120 V Primary Secondary Load 360 V
Step-down (3:1) VL = 1/3 x 120

3:1 = 40 V
19-6: Transformers
Current Ratio is the inverse of the voltage ratio. (That
is voltage step-up in the secondary means current
step-down, and vice versa.)
 The secondary does not generate power but takes it
from the primary.
 The current step-up or step-down is terms of the
secondary current IS, which is determined by the load
resistance across the secondary voltage.
19-6: Transformers
 Current Ratio 1:3
IL = 1/3 x 0.3
= 0.1 A
0.3 A
0.1 A
IS/IP = VP/VS
3:1
IL = 3 x 0.1
= 0.3 A

0.3 A
0.1 A
19-6: Transformers
Transformer efficiency is the ratio of power out to
power in.
 Stated as a formula
% Efficiency = Pout/Pin x 100
 Assuming zero losses in the transformer, power out
equals power in and the efficiency is 100%.
 Actual power transformers have an efficiency of
approximately 80 to 90%.
19-6: Transformers
 Transformer Efficiency 3:1

0.3 A
0.12 A
PPRI = 120 x .12 = 14.4 W PSEC = 40 x 0.3 = 12 W

PSEC 12
Efficiency = × 100 % = × 100 % = 83 %
PPRI 14.4
Primary power that is lost is dissipated as heat in the transformer.

19-6: Transformers
Loaded Power Transformer
1:6
 Calculate VS from the
turns ratio and VP.
 Use VS to calculate IS:
IS = VS/RL
 Use IS to calculate PS:
PS = V S x I S
 Use PS to find PP:
PP = P S 20:1
 Finally, IP can be
calculated:
IP = PP/VP
19-6: Transformers
Autotransformers
 An autotransformer is a
transformer made of one
continuous coil with a
tapped connection between
the end terminals.
 An autotransformer has only
three leads and provides no
isolation between the
primary and secondary.
19-7: Transformer Ratings
 Transformer voltage, current, and power ratings must
not be exceeded; doing so will destroy the transformer.
Typical Ratings:
 Voltage values are specified for primary and secondary
windings.
 Current
 Power (apparent power – VA)
 Frequency
Voltage Ratings
 Manufacturers always specify the voltage rating of the
primary and secondary windings.
 Under no circumstances should the primary voltage
rating be exceeded.
 In many cases, the rated primary and secondary
voltages are printed on the transformer.
 Regardless of how the secondary voltage is specified,
the rated value is always specified under full load
conditions with the rated primary voltage applied.
Current Ratings
 Manufacturers usually specify current ratings only for
secondary windings.
 If the secondary current is not exceeded, there is no
possible way the primary current can be exceeded.
 If the secondary current exceeds its rated value,
excessive I2R losses will result in the secondary
winding.
Power Ratings
 The power rating is the amount of power the
transformer can deliver to a resistive load.
 The power rating is specified in volt-amperes (VA).
 The product VA is called apparent power, since it is
the power that is apparently used by the transformer.
 The unit of apparent power is VA because the watt is
reserved for the dissipation of power in a resistance.
Frequency Ratings
 Typical ratings for a power transformer are 50, 60, and
400 Hz.
 A power transformer with a frequency rating of 400 Hz
cannot be used at 50 or 60 Hz because it will
overheat.
 Many power transformers are designed to operate at
either 50 or 60 Hz.
 Power transformers with a 400-Hz rating are often
used in aircraft because these transformers are much
smaller and lighter that 50- or 60-Hz transformers.
19-8: Impedance Transformation
 Transformers are often used to change or transform a

secondary load impedance to a new value as seen by the
primary.
 The secondary load impedance is said to be reflected back
into the primary and is called a reflected impedance.
 The reflected impedance of the secondary may be stepped
up or down.
 An equation for the reflected impedance is:
 P
2
N
ZP =    ZS
primary  NS  secondary
 If the turns ratio NP/NS is less than 1, ZS will be

stepped down in value.
 Transformer impedance matching is related to the
turns ratio:
NP ZP
=
NS ZS
Impedance Ratio 1:3 ZRATIO = 1/9
Primary Secondary Load = 9 W
The load on the source is 1 W.

3:1
ZRATIO = 9/1
Primary Secondary Load = 9 W
The load on the source is 81 W.
Impedance Matching for Maximum Power Transfer

 Transformers are used when it is necessary to
achieve maximum transfer of power from a generator
to a load when the generator and load impedances
are not the same.
 This application of a transformer is called impedance
matching.
Internal resistance (ri) is 200 Ω. RL is 8 Ω.

Fig. 19-20: Transferring power from an amplifier to a load RL. (a) Amplifier has ri = 200 Ω and
RL = 8 Ω.
VG 2
PL = ( )  RL
ri  RL
100V
=( ) 2  8W
200W  8W
= 1.85W
Connected as shown, the load receives 1.85 W of power.
Fig. 19-20: (b) Connecting the amplifier directly to RL.

Connection shown increases the power delivered to the load.
Fig. 19-20(c): Using a transformer to make the 8-Ω RL appear like 200 Ω in the primary.
Turns ratio
NP ZP
=
NS ZS
200W
=
8W
5
=
1
19-9: Core Losses
 Eddy Currents
 Eddy currents are induced in the iron core of an
inductor or transformer.
 Eddy currents raise the temperature of the core.

Wasted power is dissipated as heat.
 Losses increase with frequency.

19-9: Core Losses
Fig. 19-21: Cross-sectional view of iron core showing eddy currents.

19-9: Core Losses
Hysteresis losses
 The hysteresis losses result from the additional power
needed to reverse the magnetic field in magnetic
materials in the presence of alternating current.
 The greater the frequency, the more hysteresis loss.
Air-core coils
 Air has practically no losses from eddy currents or
hysteresis.
 The inductance for small coils with an air core is,
however, limited to low values (e.g. mH or μH).
19-10: Types of Cores
 Losses can be reduced by using a laminated core or a
powered-iron core.
 The type of steel used can reduce hysteresis losses.
 The most common types of insulation are:
 Laminated core
 Powdered iron core
 Ferrite core
19-10: Types of Cores
Laminated core
 A shell-type core formed with a group of individual
laminations.
 Each laminated section is insulated by a very thin
coating of iron oxide.
Powdered iron
 Consists of individual insulated granules pressed into
one solid form called a slug.
Ferrite core
 Synthetic ceramic materials that are ferromagnetic.
19-11: Variable Inductance
 The inductance of a coil
may be varied by one of
several methods.
For larger coils:
 More or fewer turns can
be used by connection
to one of the taps on the
coil.
 A slider contacts the coil
to vary the number of
turns used.
Fig. 19-24: Methods of varying inductance. (a) Tapped coil. (b) Slider contact.
 Figure 19-24 (c) shows the
schematic symbol for a coil
with a slug of powdered iron
or ferrite.
 Usually, an arrow at the top
means that the adjustment
is at the top of the coil.
Fig. 19-24: Methods of varying inductance. (c) Adjustable slug.

 The symbol in Fig. 19-24 (d)
is a variometer, which is an
arrangement for varying the
position of one coil within
the other.
 The total inductance of the
series-aiding coils is
minimum when they are
perpendicular.
Fig. 19-24: Methods of varying inductance. (d) Variometer.

 For any method of varying
L, the coil with an arrow in
Fig. 19-24 (e) can be used.
 The variac is an
autotransformer with a
variable tap to change the
turns ratio.
 The output voltage in the
secondary can be varied
from 0 to approximately 140
V, with a 120-V, 60Hz input.
Fig. 19-24: Methods of varying inductance. (e) Symbol for variable L.
19-12: Inductances in
Series or Parallel
 With no mutual coupling:
 For series circuits, inductances add just like
resistances.
LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + etc.
 For parallel circuits, inductances combine according

to a reciprocal formula as with resistances.
1
LEQ =
1 1 1
+ + + ... + etc.
L1 L2 L3
Series or Parallel
Series Coils for LM
 LM depends on the amount of mutual coupling and on
whether the coils are connected series-aiding or
series-opposing.
 Series-aiding means that the common current
produces the same direction of magnetic field for the
two coils.
 The series-opposing connection results in opposite
fields.
Series or Parallel
The coupling depends on the coil connections and direction of

winding. Reversing either one reverses the field.
Fig. 19-28: Inductances L1 and L2 in series but with mutual coupling LM. (a) Aiding magnetic
fields. (b) Opposing magnetic fields.
Series or Parallel
To calculate the total inductance of two coils that are
series-connected and have mutual inductance,
LT = L1 + L2 ± 2LM
The mutual inductance LM is plus, increasing the total

inductance, when the coils are series-aiding, or minus when
they are series-opposing to reduce the total inductance.
19-13: Energy in Magnetic
Field of Inductance
 The magnetic flux of current in an inductance has
electric energy supplied by the voltage source
producing the current.
 The energy is stored in the field, since it can do the
work of producing induced voltage when the flux
moves.
 The amount of electric energy stored is
Energy = ε = ½ LI2
The factor of ½ gives the average result of I in
producing energy.
19-14: Stray Capacitive and
Inductive Effects
 Stray capacitive and inductive effects can occur in all
circuits with all types of components.
 A capacitor has a small amount of inductance in the
conductors.
 A coil has some capacitance between windings.
 A resistor has a small amount of inductance and
capacitance.
Inductive Effects
A practical case of problems caused by stray L and C is
a long cable used for rf signals.
 If the cable is rolled in a coil to save space, a serious
change in the electrical characteristic of the line will
take place.
 For twin-lead or coaxial cable feeding the antenna
input to a television receiver, the line should not be
coiled because the added L or C can affect the signal.
Inductive Effects
 As shown in Fig. 19-29, a coil has
distributed capacitance Cd between turns.
 Each turn is a conductor separated from
the next turn by an insulator, which is the
definition of capacitance.
 The potential of each turn is different from
the next, providing part of the total voltage
as a potential difference to charge Cd.
This results in an equivalent circuit.
The L is inductance and Re is its internal ac
resistance.
Fig. 19-29: Equivalent circuit of an RF coil. (a) Distributed capacitance Cd between turns of
wire. (b) Equivalent circuit.
Inductive Effects
 As shown by the high-frequency
equivalent circuit in Fig. 19-30, a
resistor can include a small
amount of inductance and
capacitance.
 The inductance of carbon-
composition resistors is usually
negligible.
 Wire-wound resistors, however,
have enough inductance to be
evident.
Fig. 19-30: High-frequency equivalent circuit of a resistor.

19-15: Measuring and
Testing Inductors
 Many DMMs are capable of
measuring the value of a
capacitor, but few are
capable of measuring the
value of an inductor.
 When it is necessary to
measure the value of an
inductor, a capacitor-
inductor analyzer should be
used.
Fig. 19-31: Typical LCR meter.

Testing Inductors
 The capacitor-inductor analyzer can also test the
quality (Q) of the inductor by using a ringing test.
 Another test instrument that is capable of measuring
inductance L, capacitance C, and resistance R, is an
LCR meter.
 A typical LCR meter is shown in Fig. 19-31 (previous
slide).
 This is a handy piece of test equipment, however,
most LCR meters only measure the value of a
component.
Testing Inductors
 The most common trouble
in coils is an open winding.
 As shown in Fig. 19-32, an
ohmmeter connected across
the coil reads infinite
resistance for the open
circuit.
Fig. 19-32: An open coil reads infinite ohms

when its continuity is checked with an
ohmmeter.
Testing Inductors
 A coil has dc resistance equal to the

resistance of the wire used in the winding.
 As shown in Fig. 19-33, the dc resistance
and inductance of a coil are in series.
 Although resistance has no function in
producing induced voltage, it is useful to
know the dc coil resistance because if it is
normal, usually the inductance can also be
assumed to have its normal value.
Fig. 19-33: The internal dc resistance ri of a coil is in series with its inductance L.

1 Inductance and Transformers Chapter19

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 Inductance and Transformers Chapter19

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter

Topics Covered in Chapter 19

At point A, the current is zero and there is no flux.

Point C has maximum current and maximum counterclockwise flux.

 VL is in volts, di/dt is the current change in amperes per

Calculating the Inductance of a Long Coil

 Practical inductor values are in these ranges:

 Induced voltage is proportional to

 Induced voltage is proportional to the rate of

 The current through a 200-mH L changes from 0 to

Loose coupling Tighter coupling Unity coupling Zero coupling

Fig. 19-11: Iron-core power transformer.

The transformer transfers power from the primary to the secondary.

A transformer is a device that Primary Secondary Load

Primary Secondary Load

Step-down (VLOAD < VSOURCE)

 When transformer efficiency is 100%, the power at the

 Power ratings refer to the secondary winding in real

120 V Primary Secondary Load 360 V

Step-down (3:1) VL = 1/3 x 120

120 V Primary Secondary Load 40 V

120 V Primary Secondary Load 40 V

120 V Primary Secondary Load 40 V

PPRI = 120 x .12 = 14.4 W PSEC = 40 x 0.3 = 12 W

Primary power that is lost is dissipated as heat in the transformer.

 Transformers are often used to change or transform a

 If the turns ratio NP/NS is less than 1, ZS will be

Impedance Ratio 1:3 ZRATIO = 1/9

Primary Secondary Load = 9 W

The load on the source is 1 W.

Primary Secondary Load = 9 W

The load on the source is 81 W.

Impedance Matching for Maximum Power Transfer

Internal resistance (ri) is 200 Ω. RL is 8 Ω.

Connected as shown, the load receives 1.85 W of power.

Fig. 19-20: (b) Connecting the amplifier directly to RL.

Connection shown increases the power delivered to the load.

 Eddy currents raise the temperature of the core.

 Losses increase with frequency.

Fig. 19-21: Cross-sectional view of iron core showing eddy currents.

Fig. 19-24: Methods of varying inductance. (c) Adjustable slug.

Fig. 19-24: Methods of varying inductance. (d) Variometer.

 For parallel circuits, inductances combine according

The coupling depends on the coil connections and direction of

The mutual inductance LM is plus, increasing the total

Fig. 19-30: High-frequency equivalent circuit of a resistor.

Fig. 19-31: Typical LCR meter.

Fig. 19-32: An open coil reads infinite ohms

 A coil has dc resistance equal to the

You might also like