Numerical Methods

Roots of Algebraic
and Transcendental Equation

Fermat's Last Theorem states that no

nontrivial integer solutions exist for the
equation

an + bn=cn

if n is an integer greater than two.

Prepared by:
Engr. Demy F. Gabriel (PECE, MSME)
Fermat's Last Theorem

This theorem was first conjectured by Pierre de Fermat in 1637, famously in the
margin of a copy of Arithmetica where he claimed he had a proof that was too large
to fit in the margin. No successful proof was published until 1995 despite the efforts
of many mathematicians. The unsolved problem stimulated the development of
algebraic number theory in the 19th century and the proof of the modularity theorem
in the 20th. It is among the most famous theorems in the history of mathematics and
prior to its 1995 proof was in the Guinness Book of World Records for "most difficult
math problem".

Andrew Wiles
Transcendental Function
A transcendental function is a function that does not satisfy a polynomial equation
whose coefficients are themselves polynomials, in contrast to an algebraic function,
which does satisfy such an equation.

This is an equation containing transcendental functions (for example, exponential,

logarithmic, trigonometric, or inverse trigonometric functions) of the unknowns.
Examples of transcendental equations are
sin x + log x = x
2x – log x = arc cos x.

A transcendental equation is an equation containing a transcendental function.

Such an equation cannot be solved for one factor in terms of another. Examples of
such an equation are

x= e-x
x= cox (x)
 Roots of Algebraic Equation
Roots
Introduction

The roots of an equation is defined as the value of x that makes f(x) = 0. For this
reason, roots are sometimes called the zeros of the equation.

Although the quadratic formula is handy for solving equations, there are many other
functions for which the roots cannot be determined so easily. For these cases,
NUMERICAL METHODS provide efficient means to obtain the answer.

For those that cannot be solved analytically, one alternative is an approximate

solution technique.

One method to obtain an approximate solution is to plot the function and determine
where it crosses the x-axis. This point, which represents the x value for which f(x) =
0, is the root. This technique is called Graphical method.
 Roots of Algebraic Equation
Roots
Continuation...

Although graphical methods are useful for obtaining rough estimates of roots, they
are limited because of their lack of precision.

An alternative approach is to use trial and error.

This technique consists of guessing a value of x an evaluating whether f(x) is zero. If

not (as is almost always the case), another guess is made, and f(x) is again
evaluated to determine whether the new value provides a better estimate of the
roots. This process is repeated until a guess is obtained that results in an f(x) that is
close to zero.

Such haphazard methods are obviously inefficient and inadequate for the
requirements of engineering practice.

The techniques described in this lesson represent alternatives that are also
appropriate but employ systematic strategies to home in on the true root.
 Roots of Algebraic Equation
Bracketing Methods
Overview

This technique of finding the roots of the equation deals with the method that
exploit the fact a function typically changes sign in the vicinity of a root.

This technique is so called because two initial guesses for the roots are required. As
the name implies, these guesses must ‘bracket’, or be on either side of the root.

The methods used employs different strategies to systematically reduce the width of
the bracket and hence, home in on the correct answer.

As a prelude to these techniques, we will briefly discuss graphical methods for

depicting functions and their roots.

Beyond their utility for providing rough guesses, graphical techniques are also useful
for visualizing the properties of the functions and the behaviour of the various
numerical methods.
 Bracketing Method
Graphical Method
Overview

This simple method for obtaining an estimate of the root of the equation f(x) = 0 is
to make a plot of the function and observe where it crosses the x-axis.

This point, which represents the x value for which f(x) = 0, provides a rough
approximation of the roots.

Example:

Determine the real roots of f(x) = 5x3 – 5x2 + 6x – 2 graphically.

 Bracketing Method
Graphical Method
Various values of x are to be substituted to compute for f(x)

The table below shows some of the values of x and f(x)

x f(x)
0 -2
0.1 -1.445
0.2 -0.96
0.3 -0.515
0.4 -0.08
0.5 0.375
0.6 0.88
0.7 1.465
0.8 2.16
0.9 2.995
1 4

Graph f(x) along the y-axis with the values of x along x-axis
 Bracketing Method
Graphical Method

The approximated value of x is equal to 0.4181

 Bracketing Method
Graphical Method
Example:

Use the graphical approach to determine the drag coefficient c needed for a
parachutist of mass m = 68.1 kg to have a velocity of 40m/s after free-falling for
time t=10s. Use g=9.8m/s2

The equation is:

gm
f(c) = -------
c (1 – e
-(c/m)t) – v

(9.8)(68.1)
f(c) = -----------------
c (1 – e -(c/68.1)10) – 40

The value of c that makes f(c) = 0 is, therefore, the root of the equation. This value
also represent the drag coefficient that solves the design problem.
 Bracketing Method
Graphical Method
Continuation...

Various values of c can be substituted into the right hand side of this equation to
compute for f(c)

40
c f(c) 35
30
4 34.115 25

8 17.653 20
15
12 6.067 10
5
16 -2.269 0

20 -8.401 -5 4 8 12 16 20
-10
-15

Visual inspection of the plot provide a rough estimate of the root = 14.75
True value = 14.7802
 Bracketing Method
Bisection Method

Introduction

Bisection method, which is alternatively called binary chopping, interval halving, or

Bolzano’s method.

This is one type of incremental search method in which the interval is always divided
in half.

If the function changes sign over an interval, the function value at the midpoint is
evaluated.

If the function changes sign over an interval, the function value at the midpoint is
evaluated. The location of the root is then determined as lying at the midpoint of the
subinterval within which the sign change occurs.

The process is repeated to obtain refined estimates.

 Bracketing Method
Bisection Method
Algorithm:

Step 1: Choose lower xl and upper xu guesses for the root such that the function
changes sign over the interval. This can be checked by ensuring that

f(xl) f(xu) < 0

Step 2: An estimate of the root xr is determined by

xl + xu
xr = ----------
2
Step 3: Make the following evaluations to determine in which subinterval the root
lies:
a) if f(xl) f(xr) < 0, the root lies in the lower subinterval. Therefore,
set xu = xr and return to step 2.
b) if f(xl) f(xr) > 0, the root lies in the upper subinterval. Therefore,
set xl = xr and return to step 2.
c) if f(xl) f(xr) = 0, the root equals xr; terminate the computation
 Bracketing Method
Bisection Method
Problem

Use bisection method to solve the previous example on parachutist.

Solution:

The first step in the bisection is to guess two values of the unknown that gives values
for f(c) with different signs. We can see that the function changes sign between
values of 12 and 16. Therefore, the initial estimate of the root xr , lies at the midpoint
of the interval.
12 + 16
xr = ------------ = 14
2

This estimate represents a true percent relative error of ɛr= 5.3% (note that the
true value of the root is 14.7802)

Next compute the product of the function value at the lower bound and at the
midpoint:
f(12) f(14) = (6.067)(1.569) = 9.517
 Bracketing Method
Bisection Method
Continuation...

Since 9.517 is greater than zero, this means no sign occurs between the lower bound
and the midpoint.

We create a new interval by redefining the lower bound as 14 and determining a

revised root estimate as
14 + 16
xr = ---------- = 15
2
Which represents a true percent relative error of ɛr= 1.5%

The process can be repeated to obtain refined estimates.

f(14) f(15) = (1.569)(-0.425) = -0.666, which is less than zero

Therefore the root is between 14 and 15. The upper bound is redefined as 15, and
the root estimate for the third iteration is calculated as
14 + 15
xr = ---------- = 14.5
2
 Bracketing Method
Bisection Method
Continuation...

This represents a percent relative error of ɛr= 1.9%

The method can be repeated until the result is accurate enough to satisfy your
needs.
xrnew – xrold
Ɛa= -----------------100%
Xrnew

Problem:

Continue the previous example until the approximate error falls below a stopping
criterion of Ɛs= 0.5%.

Solution is in the next page.

 Bracketing Method
Bisection Method
Continuation...

Iteration xl xu xr Ɛa Ɛt
1 12 16 14 5.279
2 14 16 15 6.667 1.487
3 14 15 14.5 3.448 1.896
4 14.5 15 14.75 1.695 0.204
5 14.75 15 14.875 0.840 0.641
6 14.75 14.875 14.8125 0.422 0.219

Thus, after six iteration, Ɛa finally falls below Ɛs = 0.5%, and the computation
can be terminated