Understanding

Conductivity
of
Materials

Conductors , Semiconductors

Insulators , Photoconductors
 Index

– History
– Introduction
– What is conductivity
– Band Theory
– Conductors , Insulators , Semiconductor
– Photoconductors
– code
 History

– The early studies of electrical conduction in metals were done in the eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries. Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) in his experiments with lightning (leading to
his invention of the lightning rod), reasoned that the charge would travel along the metallic
rod. Alessandro Volta(1745–1827) derived the concept of electrical potential from his studies
of static electricity, and then discovered the principle of the battery in his experiments with
dissimilar metals in common contact with moisture. Once batteries were available for contact with
metals, electric currents were produced and studied. Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854) found the
direct proportion relating current and potential difference, which became a measure of the ability
of various metals to conduct electricity. Extensive theoretical studies of currents were carried out
by Andre Marie Ampere (1775–1836)
– To honor these scientists, the systeme internationale (SI) units use their names. The unit of
potential difference is the volt, and potential difference is more commonly called voltage. The unit
of electrical resistance is the ohm, and the unit of current is the ampere. The relation among these
functions is known as Ohm’s law.
Introduction
– Electrical conductivity occurs because of the ease with which electrons can be removed from
atoms. All substances consist of atoms. In turn, all atoms consist of two main parts: a
positively charged nucleus and one or more negatively charged electrons. An atom of iron, for
example, consists of a nucleus with 26 positive charges and 26 negatively charged electrons.
– The electrons in an atom are not all held with equal strength. Electrons close to the nucleus
are strongly attracted by the positive charge of the nucleus and are removed from the atom
only with great difficulty. Electrons farthest from the nucleus are held only loosely and are
removed quite easily.
– A block of iron can be thought of as a huge collection of iron atoms. Most of the electrons in
these atoms are held tightly by the iron nuclei. But a few electrons are held loosely—so
loosely that they act as if they don't even belong to atoms at all. Scientists sometimes refer to
this condition as a cloud of electrons
Conductivity

– Conductivity is the term used to describe the ability of a material medium to permit
the passage of particles or energy . Electrical conductivity refers to the movement of
charged particles through matter. Thermal conductivity refers to the transmission
of heat energy through matter. Together, these are the most significant examples of
a broader classification of phenomena known as transport processes. In metals,
electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity are related since both involve
aspects of electron motion .

– Electrical conductivity (σ) The ease with which an electrical current will pass
through a material, in units of siemens or reciprocal ohms (mhos) per metre. In
materials which are assumed to be isotropic, conductivity is equal to the inverse
of resistivity (ρ), therefore σ= 1/ρ. See also APPARENT CONDUCTIVITY.
 Inter-Atomic Theory

– Covalent Bonding
– In Covalent Bonding none of the atoms involved loose or gain atoms per say but rather they get close
to one another such that they can share the valence electrons. See Ge example below whereby one
Germenium atom shares its 4 valence electrons with 4 other germenium atoms located symmetrically
around it. The sharing is done to achieve a stable electronic structure by filling the outermost atomic
shell. The Intrinsic semiconductors of group 14 fall under this category and show moderate
conductivity.

Metallic Bonding
In many metals (e.g. Al, Cu, Ag, Pd, etc.), the atoms share their valence electrons but not only
or necessarily with neighboring
atoms but rather with all the atoms in the matter. This is facilitated by the electrons forming a
sea or cloud that engulfs the rest
of the atom (i.e. the positively charged nucleus with its remaining non-valence electrons). See
the sketch for an explanation.
Band Theory

– useful way to visualize the difference

between conductors, insulators and semiconductors is to plot
the available energies for electrons in the materials. Instead of
having discrete energiesas in the case of free atoms, the
available energy states form bands. Crucial to the conduction
process is whether or not there are electrons in the conduction
band. In insulators the electrons in the valence band are
separated by a large gap from the conduction band, in
conductors like metals the valence band overlaps the conduction
band, and in semiconductors there is a small enough gap
between the valence and conduction bands that thermal or
other excitations can bridge the gap. With such a small gap, the
presence of a small percentage of a doping material can increase
conductivity dramatically.

– An important parameter in the band theory is the Fermi level,

the top of the available electron energy levels at low
temperatures. The position of the Fermi level with the relation to
the conduction band is a crucial factor in determining electrical
properties.

–
All Related Formulas

– σ is the conductivity, the reciprocal (1/ρ) of the resistivity.

– second physical definition of conductivity:
– Ζ = J/E = nevd/E = neu
– G = ζ(A/L)
– G = I/V
– I=GV
Conductors , Semiconductors
Insulators,
– (1) Conductors (Metals). In case of conductors, the last
occupied band of energy levels is only partially filled.
The available electrons occupy one by one, the lowest
levels (Pauli’s exclusion principle).
This leaves part of this band, called conduction band,
unoccupied. The conduction band (C) and the valence
band (V) (lower completely filled band) overlap
– Electrons of valence band move freely in partially filled
conduction band.
The highest energy level occupied at absolute zero by
electrons in partially filled conduction band, is
called Fermi level and the corresponding energy, is
called Fermy energy.
Conductors ,
Semiconductors
Insulators,
– (2) Insulators. In case of insulators, the empty conduction band (C)
(unoccupied band) and the valence band (V) have an energy gap (Eg) of
about 6 eV as shown .
The band that separates two bands (C and V), is called Forbidden band
(F).
– Due to large energy gap, no electrons are promoted from valence band
to empty conduction band. Valence band remains completely filled.
An important example of insulator is diamond with energy gap of
about 5.4 eV.
– (3) Semiconductors. In case of semiconductors, the empty conduction
band (C) (unoccupied band) and the valence band (V) have an energy
gap (Eg) of about 1 eV as shown in figure .
The band that separates the two bands (C and V) is called Forbidden
band (F).
Common examples of semiconductors are Silicon (14) and Germanium
(32) with energy gaps of about 1.12 eV and 0.75 eV respectively.
Photoconductors

– Photoconductive
In photoconductive mode, an external reverse bias is
applied, which is the basis for our DET series detectors.
The current measured through the circuit indicates
illumination of the device; the measured output current is
linearly proportional to the input optical power. Applying
a reverse bias increases the width of the depletion
junction producing an increased responsivity with a
decrease in junction capacitance and produces a very
linear response. Operating under these conditions does
tend to produce a larger dark current, but this can be
limited based upon the photodiode material. (Note: Our
DET detectors are reverse biased and cannot be operated
under a forward bias.)
Characteristic Graph
Code

– #include<iostream>
– #include<stdlib.h>
– #include<windows.h>
– #include<conio.h>
– #include<math.h>
– using namespace std;
– void hasht(){
– // cout<<"\t\t";
– for(int i=0;i<50;i++){
– cout<<"#";
– }
– cout<<endl;
– };
– void option();
– void type(float x){
– if(x>pow(10,4)||x<pow(10,7)){
– cout<<"THE GIVEN MATERIAL IS CONDUCTORS\n";
– }
– else if(x>pow(10,-6)||x<pow(10,4)){
– cout<<"THE GIVEN MATERIAL IS SEMICONDUCTORS\n";
– }
– else if(x<pow(10,-6)){
– cout<<"THE GIVEN MATERIAL IS INSULATOR\n";
– }
– }
– void calculate()
– {
– float G,A,R,r,l,c,J,E,con;
– int choice;
– cout<<"\t1. Conductance(when resistivity is given)"<<endl;
– cout<<"\t2. Conductivity(By Maxwell's formula)'"<<endl;
– cout<<"\t3. Conductivity(when resistivity is given)"<<endl;
– cout<<"\tEnter the choice you want to calculate"<<endl;
– cin>>choice;
– switch(choice)
– {
– case 1:
– system("cls");
hasht();
cout<<"to calculate the conductance of specimen we
require :"<<endl;
hasht();
cout<<"The length of specimen__"<<endl;
cin>>l;
cout<<"The resistivity of substance__"<<endl;
cin>>r;
cout<<"The area of cross-section of
specimen__"<<endl;
cin>>A;
G=A/(r*l);

cout<<"The conductance of the specimen is

:"<<G<<"S(siemens)"<<endl<<endl;

cout<<"_________________________________________
___________________________"<<endl;
 break;
case 2:
system("cls");
hasht();
cout<<"to calculate the conductivity of specimen we
require :"<<endl;
hasht();
cout<<"The Magnitude of Current density__"<<endl;
cin>>J;
cout<<"The Magnitude of Electric field__"<<endl;
cin>>E;
c=J/E;;
cout<<"The conductance of the specimen is
:"<<c<<"S(siemens)/m(meter)"<<endl<<endl;

cout<<"_________________________________________
____________________________"<<endl;
type(c);
cout<<"_____________________________________________
________________________"<<endl;
break;
case 3:
system("cls");
hasht();
cout<<"to calculate the conductivity of specimen we
require :"<<endl;
hasht();
cout<<"The resistivity of substance__"<<endl;
cin>>r;
c=1/r;
cout<<"The conductance of the specimen is
:"<<c<<"S(siemens)/m(meter)"<<endl<<endl;

cout<<"_________________________________________
____________________________"<<endl;
type(c);
 cout<<"_________________________________________
____________________________"<<endl;
break;
default:
char ch;
cout<<"INVALID INPUT"<<endl<<"Please try
again"<<endl;

cout<<"_________________________________________
____________________________"<<endl;
cin>>ch;
calculate();
break;
}

option();
}
void option()
{
int k;
cout<<"1.To Continue 2.To Exit"<<endl;
cin>>k;
cout<<"
if(k==1)
calculate();
else
exit(0);
}
int main()
{

hasht();
cout<<"\t\t Conductivity\n";

hasht();
cout<<"Conductivity is the measure of ease at which"
<<endl<<"an electric current can pass through a
material"<<endl;
hasht();
cout<<endl;
hasht();
cout<<"\tIn this program we will calculate:"<<endl;
hasht();
calculate();
option();
}
Contact us

– S.Aditya email:adithyaddy816@gmail.com
– Himanshu singh email: Himanshsingh928.hs@gmail.com
– Anuj email: Pundiranuj28@gmail.com
THANK YOU