3-1: Structure of the Human Brain (Figure 3-6)

Teresa M. McDevitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Child Development and Education Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
3-2: Neurons in the Brain (Figure 3-5)

Teresa M. McDevitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Child Development and Education Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
3-3: Examples of Risk Factors for Healthy Neurological Development (Table 3-1)

Teresa M. McDevitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Child Development and Education Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
 5 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
DARWINIAN EVOLUTION THEORY
[FROM: MICHAEL SHERMER’S (2002) In Darwin’s Shadow: The life and Science of
Alfred Russel Wallace. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, p. 207.]

• EVOLUTION: CHANGE (in behavior)THROUGH

TIME.
• DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION: THE MODE OF
EVOLUTION BY BRANCHING COMMON
DESCENT.
• GRADUALISM: CHANGE (in behavior) IS SLOW,
STEADY, STATELY. NATURA NON FACIT SALTUS.
GIVEN ENOUGH TIME EVOLUTION CAN
ACCOUNT FOR THE ORIGIN OF NEW SPECIES.
• MULTIPLICATION OF SPECIATION:
EVOLUTION PRODUCES NOT JUST NEW SPECIES
(behavior), BUT AN INCREASING NUMBER OF NEW
SPECIES (behaviors).
• NATURAL SELECTION: THE MECHANISM OF
EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE CAN BE SUBDIVIDED
INTO FIVE STEPS: (SEE NEXT SLIDE).
 FIVE STEPS OF
NATURAL SELECTION

• 1. POPULATIONS [behaviors] TEND TO INCREASE

INDEFINITELY IN A GEOMETRIC RATIO. [FROM
OBSERVATION]
• 2. IN A NATURAL ENVIRONMENT, HOWEVER,
POPULATION [behavior] NUMBERS STABILIZE AT A
CERTAIN LEVEL. [FROM OBSERVATION]
• THERE MUST BE A “STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE”
SINCE NOT ALL ORGANISMS [behaviors]
PRODUCED CAN SURVIVE. [FROM INFERENCE]
• THERE IS VARIATION IN EVERY SPECIES
[behaviors]. [FROM OBSERVATION]
• IN THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE, THOSE
VARIATIONS THAT ARE BETTER ADAPTED TO
THE ENVIRONMENT LEAVE BEHIND MORE
OFFSPRING THAN THE LESS WELL ADAPTED
INDIVIDUALS, ALSO KNOWN AS DIFFERENTIAL
REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS. [FROM INFERENCE]
 BEHAVIORISTS’:
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF BEHAVIORISM

• PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING SHOULD APPLY

EQUALLY TO DIFFERENT BEHAVIORS AND TO
DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ANIMALS
• LEARNING PROCESSES CAN BE STUDIED MOST
OBJECTIVELY WHEN THE FOCUS OF STUDY IS
ON STIMULI AND RESPONSES.
• INTERNAL PROCESSES ARE LARGELY EXCLUDED
FROM SCIENTIFIC STUDY
• LEARNING INVOLVES A BEHAVIOR CHANGE
• ORGANISMS ARE BORN AS BLANK SLATES (tabula
rasa).
• LEARNING IS LARGELY THE RESULT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS.
• THE MOST USEFUL THEORIES TEND TO BE
PARSIMONIOUS ONES.
 Concept Map:
Behavioral Approaches
Approaches to Learning
Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning

SOCIAL
COGNITIVE
APPROACHES
TO LEARNING

Evaluating the
Bandura’s Social
Social Cognitive
Cognitive Theory
Approaches

Cognitive
Observatio
Behavior
nal
Approaches
Learning
Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning

• Bandura’s social cognitive

theory
– Social cognitive theory
– Reciprocal determinism model
– Self-efficacy
 Bandura’s Reciprocal
Determinism Model of Learning

B
Behavior

P/C
E
Person and
Environment
cognitive factors
Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning

• Observational learning
– What is observational learning?
– The classic Bobo doll study
– Bandura’s contemporary model of
observational learning
• Attention
• Retention
• Motor reproduction
• Reinforcement of incentive
conditions
Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning

• Cognitive behavior approaches

and self-regulation
– Cognitive behavior approaches
• Self-instructional methods
Social Cognitive Approaches
to Learning

– Self-regulatory learning
• A model of self-regulatory learning

Self-Evaluation
and Monitoring

Goal Setting and

Monitoring Outcomes
Strategic Planning
and Refining Strategies

Putting a Plan into

Action and Monitoring It
 Self Regulated Learning:
From Social/Cognitive Theory.

Key people:
Bandura; Schunk; Zimmerman.

Key elements:

• Goal Setting
• Planning
• Self-motivation (intrinsic motivation)
• Attention control
• Application of learning strategies
• Self-monitoring
• Self-evaluation
• Self-reflection
General Assumptions of Cognitive
Theories

 Some Learning Processes may be unique to

human beings.
 Cognitive processes are the focus of study.
 Objective, systematic observations of
people’s behavior should be the focus of
scientific inquiry; however, inferences
about unobservable mental processes can
often be drawn from behavior.
 Individuals are actively involved in the
learning process.
 Learning involves the formation of mental
representations or associations that are not
necessarily reflected in overt behavior
changes.
 Implications of
Cognitive Theories
 Cognitive processes influence
learning.
 As children grow, they become
capable of increasingly more
sophisticated thought.
 People organize the things they
learn.
 New information is most easily
acquired when people can associate
it with things they have already
learned.
 People control their own learning.
 Some key Cognitive
theorists
• Jean Piaget (French)
• Lev Vygotsky (RUSSIAN)
• Edward Tolman (American)
• Jerome Bruner (American)
• Kurt Lewin (German)
Kurt Lewin (From Alfred
Marrow’s book)

BH = f (P+E)
FOREIGN HULL VECTORS

VALENCES

PERSON G
O
B A

A
- L

R R
E
R G
I + I
O
E N
R
NEEDS
ABILITIES

PSYCHOLOGICAL LIFE SPACE

 Concept Map:
Chapter Eight Overview
The Cognitive Information-
Processing Approach

THE COGNITIVE
INFORMATION-
PROCESSING
APPROACH

Exploring the
Information- Characteristics of the
Processing Information-Processing
Approach Approach
 The Cognitive Information-
Processing Approach

• Exploring the information-

processing approach
– Cognitive psychology
 The Cognitive Information-
Processing Approach

• Characteristics of the information-

processing approach
– Thinking
– Change mechanisms
– Encoding
– Automaticity
– Strategy construction
– Transfer
– Self-modification
– Metacognition
 Memory

MEMORY

What is Retrieval and

Memory? Forgetting

Encoding Storage
 Memory

• What is memory?

ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL

Getting Retaining Taking

information information information
into memory over time out of storage
 Memory

• Encoding
– Rehearsal
– Deep processing
• Levels of processing theory
– Elaboration
– Constructing images
– Organization
• Chunking
 Memory

• Storage
– Memory’s time frames
• Sensory memory
• Short-term (working) memory
– Memory span
• Long-term memory
 Key Ideas in Information Processing Theory

I Sensation and Perception

II Attention
A. Distractibility decreases; sustained attention increases

B. Attention becomes increasingly purposeful

III Working Memory

A. Processing speed increases

B. Children acquire more effective cognitive processes

C. The physical capacity of working memory

may increase somewhat

IV Long-Term Memory
A. The amount of knowledge stored in long-term
memory increases

B. Knowledge becomes increasingly symbolic in nature

C. Children’s knowledge about the world

becomes increasingly integrated

D. Children’s growing knowledge base facilitates

more effective learning
Teresa M. McDevitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Child Development and Education Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
5-1: A model of the human information processing system (Figure 5-1)

Teresa M. McDevitt, Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Child Development and Education Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s
Theory of Memory
Baddeley’s Model of
Memory

Visuospatial
scratchpad

Central
executive

Articulatory
loop
 Storage: Long-Term
Memory’s Contents

Long-term memory

Nondeclarative
Declarative (implicit)
(explicit)

Episodic memory Semantic memory

 Memory

• Storage
– Content knowledge and how it is
represented in long-term memory
• Content knowledge
• Network theories
• Schema theories
– Schema
– Script
 Memory

• Retrieval and forgetting

– Retrieval
• Serial position effect
• Primacy effect
• Recency effect
• Encoding specificity principle
• Recall
• Recognition
 Memory

• Retrieval and forgetting

– Forgetting
• Cue-dependent forgetting
• Interference theory
• Decay theory
FOREIGN HULL VECTORS

VALENCES

PERSON G
O
B A

A
- L

R R
E
R G
I + I
O
E N
R
NEEDS
ABILITIES

PSYCHOLOGICAL LIFE SPACE

 Abraham Maslow’s

• Perspectives on motivation
– The humanist perspective
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
– Physiological
– Safety
– Love and belongingness
– Esteem
– Self-actualization