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LOGIC
LOGIC
LOGIC
2 CATEGORIES:
• 1. Function words (syncategorimatic)- words that
carry no semantic content or meaning in
themselves; like the articles, prepositions and
conjuctions.
• 2. Content words (categorimatic) – words that carry
meaning in themselves; like nouns, pronouns, action
verbs, adjective.
Concepts - mental representation of the object in reality (Bachhuber,
1957).
Thus they are abstract, immaterial and intelligible; these are made up of
ideas.
1. First Intention – we grasp the nature or quiddity of an object according to its own proper
being(Andrew Bachhuber, 1966.209).
Ex. A dog is a bodily substance
A dog is an irrational being.
A dog is a quadruped.
2. Second Intention – a kind of concept which presents the mode or manner by which the mind
understands the nature or quality as a logical reality (Ramon Agapay.)
Ex. A dog is the subject of the conversation.
A dog is the winner.
A dog is in the middle.
2 KINDS OF CONCEPT:
CONCRETE CONCEPT – One that presents to the mind both form and subject as non-separable…ex.
Man, animal, tree…
ABSTRACT CONCEPT – A CONCEPT WITH THE form without the subject.. ex. Manhood, humanity.
1. ORAL OR VERBAL
2. WRITTEN OR DRAWN
EXAMPLE:
COMPREHENSION EXTENSION
Kinds of Signs:
1. Natural signs are signs which connection with the objects they manifest is
provided by nature.
Examples:
A heavy dark cloud is a natural sign of an oncoming rain.
Smoke is a natural sign of fire.
2. Abstract signifies a nature or quality though it exists on its own right and
apart from the individual or subject.
Examples:
Friendship Humanity Love
Manhood Authority Loyalty
C. ACCORDING TO EXTENSION
APPLICATION OF EXTENSION:
A. ABSOLUTE – when the term covers all the individuals or groups
referred to by the term.
Ex. Man is a rational being… - Man is used here as absolute since it covers
all men in all ages and generations.
Ex. The modern man is sociable and practical. – Man is used here in a
Limited manner, only the modern man.
THREE KINDS OF FUNCTIONAL EXTENSION:
REAL TERMS – those which indicate what is true in nature or in reality; whether our
minds perceive them or not they exist, thus they are not dependent
on human minds. Ex. Night – day; life and death, etc.
CONCEPTUAL TERMS – when they express products of the mind. Ex. Class, race,
Golden mountain, superman, spongebob.
IMAGINARY TERMS – when they signify results of imagination, fantasy and illusion
Ex. Talking tree, golden Buddha, dancing lights which are not used to
Denote something other than their literal meaning but having some
Similarity to them, such as, bird-brained person, snail paced worker,
Henpecked husband.
PROPOSITION
-A proposition is an expression of judgment. It may
be something that is stated for the purpose of
discussion or something to be dealt with as a
statement of fact or truth.
-It is a statement in which something is affirmed or
denied.
-A proposition is different from a sentence because
a sentence is a word or a group of words expressing
a complete thought. An example of a sentence is
“RUN!” This is a single word expressing a complete
thought and therefore a sentence.
Therefore, all propositions are sentences but not all
sentences are propositions.
“RUN!” is not a proposition because it does not
express a judgment.
KINDS OF PROPOSITION
Example:
1. Either we have the national language or not.
2. He is either asleep or awake.
4. CONJUNCTIVE PROPOSITION
• A proposition which presents two
alternatives which cannot be true
simultaneously or at the same time.
Example:
1. She cannot be diligent and lazy at the
same time.
2. It is not possible for a country to have
both the democratic and dictatorial
systems of governance.
A. CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION
Elements of a Categorical Proposition
Examples:
Students learn.
All students are learners.
1. OPPOSITIONAL PROPOSITION
OR THE SQUARE OF OPPOSITION
2. EDUCTION
THE SQUARE OF OPPOSITION
All S are P. No S is P.
A CONTRARIETY E
C
O
S N N S
U T O U
B R I B
A A T A
L D C L
T I T
E D C E
R A T R
N R I N
A T O A
T N N T
I O I
O C O
N N
I S U B- C O N T R A R I E T Y O
C. FOUR LAWS GOVERNING LOGICAL
OPPOSITIONS
1. Law of Contradiction
2. Law of Contrariety
3. Law of Sub-Alternation
4. Law of Sub-Contrariety
1. Law of Contradiction
A vs. O
* If All teachers are educated persons, is true.
Then, Some teachers are not educated persons, is false.
E vs. I
• If No bad intention is detrimental to the society, is false.
Then, Some bad intentions are detrimental to the society, is true.
2. Law of Contrariety
* If A is true, E is false
* If E is true, A is false
* If A is false, E is doubtful
* If E is false, A is doubtful
Examples of Contrary:
A vs. E
*If All government policies are pro-people, is true.
Then, No government policy is pro-people, is false.
E vs. A
If No vigilant citizen is a negligent person, is false.
Then, All vigilant citizens are negligent persons, is doubtful.
3. Law of Sub-Alternation
a) States that the truth of the universal
carries or implies the truth of the particular
but not vice versa.
* If A is true, I is true
* If E is true, O is true
* If I is true, A is doubtful
* If O is true, E is doubtful
b) States that the falsity of the particular
carries or implies d falsity of the universal
but not vice versa.
* If I is false, A is false
* If O is false, E is false
* If A is false, I is doubtful
* If E is false, O is doubtful
Example of SUB-ALTERNS:
A to I
*If All diligent students are commendable persons, is true.
Then, Some diligent students are commendable persons, is true.
E to O
*If No violent action is punishable by law, is false.
Then, Some violent actions are not punishable by law, is doubtful.
I to A
*If Some courses are foreign based disciplines, is false.
Then All courses are foreign based disciplines, is false.
O to E
*If Some studious persons are not students, is true.
Then No studious person is a student, is doubtful.
4. Law of Sub-Contrariety
* If I is false, O is true
* If O is false, I is true
* If I is true, O is doubtful
* If O is true, I is doubtful
Eduction:
The second form of Immediate Inference
is Eduction, where a new Proposition is
being formulated either by interchanging
the subject and predicate terms of the
original proposition or by the use or
removal of negatives.
1. Conversion
An inference formed by interchanging the
subject and predicate terms of a categorical
proposition. Not all conversions are valid.
rules:
1. Interchange the subject and the predicate
terms.
2. Retain the quality of the convertend in the
converse.
SIMPLE PARTIAL
E to E A to I
(No college student is a moron.) (All teachers are professionals.)
(No moron persons are college students (Some professionals are teachers.)
I to I E to O
(Some past presidents are cheaters.) (No lazy student is a commendable person.)
(Some cheater persons are past (Some commendable persons are not lazy
presidents.) students.)
2 .Obversion
diagram:
A to E I to O
(All students are stakeholders.) (Some students are diligent persons.)
(No student is a non-stakeholder.) (Some students are not non-diligent persons.)
E to A O to I
(No man is an immortal being.) (Some intentions are not sincere acts.)
(All men are mortal beings.) (Some intentions are insincere acts.)
3. Contraposition
An inference formed by replacing the subject term of a
proposition with the complement of its predicate term, and
replacing the predicate term by the complement of its
subject term. Not all contrapositions are valid.
E to I
(No citizen is unsovereign person.)
(Some sovereign people are citizens.)
B. COMPLETE
1. The subject of the contraposit is the contradictory of the predicate in the contraponend.
2. The quality of the contraponend is not changed in the contraposit.
3. The predicate term of the contraposit is the contradictory of the subject in the
contraponend.
diagram:
A to A O to O
(All human rights are constitutional.) (Some dreams are not reached.)
(All unconstitutional rights are non-human (Some unreached goals are not non- dreams.)
right.)
E to O
(No citizen is a non-sovereign individual.)
(Some non-sovereign people are non-citizens.)
INVERSION
A. SIMPLE
rules:
1. Change to subject of the convertend to its contradiction.
2. Change the quantity & quality of the invertend.
3. Retain the original predicate.
diagram
A to O E to I
Example PARTIAL INVERSION
A to O
1. All mentors are persons who guides.
Some non-mentors are not persons who guides.
E to I
1. No sensible idea is an irrelevant contribution.
Some insensible ideas are irrelevant contributions.
B. COMPLETE
rules:
1. Change the subject to its contradiction.
2. Change the quantity of the proposition
3. Retain the quality.
4. Change the predicate to its contradiction.
diagram
A to I E to O
Example: COMPLETE INVERSION
A to I
1. All X’s are Y’s.
Some non-X’s are non-Y’s.
E to O
1. No A is B.
Some non-A’s are not non-B’s.
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS
Example:
All Filipinos are Asians.
All Boholanos are Filipinos
Therefore All Boholanos are Asians.
HOW TO IDENTIFY THE TERMS IN THE SYLLOGISM?
(AAA)
Only men are priests.
Mark is a man.
Therefore Mark is a priest.
DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS
Example:
All teachers are models.
Some teachers are not wise persons.
Therefore, some wise persons are models.
Invalid
Rules: 2,3,5,9
FALLACY
Fallacy comes from the Latin word fallo or fallere which
means to deceive.
It refers to any error in reasoning. Fallacies may be formal
or informal.
Examples:
“ Kapag hindi ka nakuha sa santong dasalan, kukunin kita
sa santong paspasan.”
“Kapag hindi mo ako minahal, hindi kita ipapasa.”
Argumentum Ad Vericundiam (Appeal to wrong
authority)
This happens when a wrong or unqualified authority
is cited to establish a conclusion.
Example:
Another killer earthquake will hit Cabanatuan City
within three years, Sarah Geronimo said.
9. Complex Question
This is asking a question that presupposes an answer to
another question that has not been asked and answered.
Example:
“Is he your 3rd boyfriend?”