• What are the stages of the Big Bang?

• How are elements written?

 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
• 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
• hydrogen and helium atoms in stars began combining in nuclear fusion
reactions once hydrogen-helium stars had formed from the action of
gravity. These reactions inside stars are known as stellar
nucleosynthesis.
• the first fusion process occurs in the hydrogen core of stars such
as the sun with a temperature of less than 15 million K. These
kinds of stars are called main-sequence stars.
1. Deuterium (D or 2H) forms from proton fusion, with one proton
turning into a neutron via beta-plus decay, giving off a
neutrino and a positron: 1H + 1H → 2H + ν + e+
2. 3He forms from deuterium and proton fusion, also known as
deuterium burning. This immediately consumes all deuterium
produced. 2H + 1H → 3He + γ
3. 4He forms from 3He fusion. 3He + 3He → 4He + 2 1H
The entire three-step process releases about 26.7 MeV
(megaelectronvolts) of energy. The energy released is responsible
for the thermal pressure that pushes against gravity. It is also
responsible for the light, heat and radiation emitted by the star. A
different process facilitates hydrogen fusion in mainsequence stars
with temperature greater than 15 million K.
1. What are the three steps of the
main-branch proton-proton chain?
2. What do you call the stars that have
temperatures of less than 15 million
K?
3. What is the process responsible for
the formation of elements in the
stars?
• How does a star “run out” of fuel?
• What is the “threshold” or last
element that could be formed in a
star?
• How are heavier elements formed if
the stars can only form elements until
Iron?
Boron Lanthanum Actinium Potassium
Phosphorus Indium Potassium Indium
Yttrium Oxygen Uranium Radium
Rhenium Actinium
• Stellar nucleosynthesis – combination of helium and
hydrogen atoms in stars, producing various other elements
• Main-branch proton-proton chain
• Deuterium forms from proton proton chain
• 3He forms from D proton chain
• 4He forms from 3He fusion
• Main sequence stars - stars that are fusing hydrogen
atoms to form helium atoms in their cores.
• Supergiants - largest stars in the universe in terms of
volume, although they are not the most massive or luminous
• Supernova - a transient astronomical event that occurs
during the last stellar evolutionary stages of massive
star's life, whose dramatic and catastrophic destruction
is marked by one final, titanic explosion.
• Supernova Nucleosynthesis - responsible for the
creation of rarer elements heavier than iron and nickel
• R-process - rapid neutron-capture process, or so-
called r-process, is responsible for the creation of
approximately half of the atomic nuclei heavier than
iron; the "heavy elements".
• S-process - slow neutron-capture process, is
responsible for the creation of approximately half the
atomic nuclei heavier than iron.
• the core of a star
becomes comprised of
He as H is depleted,
while H fusion only
occurs in a shell around
it. Due to this process,
the temperature and
density of the core of
the star increases up to
100 million K. The star’s
thermal pressure causes
it to push out H gas. The
star balloons into a red
giant.
• Several nuclear fusion processes occur in a red
giant aside from hydrogen fusion. The first is the
triple alpha process. Alpha particles refer to
4He. This reaction involves the fusion of three
4He atoms in the following steps:
• 4He + 4He → 8Be
• 8Be + 4He → 12C + γ
• Note that the 8Be intermediate is unstable, so
either it decays or forms 12C.
• The star can keep growing into a supergiant as
it accumulates mass. Alpha fusion processes
continue in the core via the alpha ladder. More
and more alpha particles are fused to create
heavier elements all the way to iron, making the
core and star itself more massive.
• The star can keep growing into a supergiant as
it accumulates mass. Alpha fusion processes
continue in the core via the alpha ladder. More
and more alpha particles are fused to create
heavier elements all the way to iron, making the
core and star itself more massive.
• Stars hotter than 15 million K could facilitate
the production of helium once carbon was
present from alpha processes. This happens
through a process where 12C is used as a
catalyst known as the carbon fusion cycle or the
CNO cycle. This process involves repeated
proton capture and beta-plus decay
• Finally, share how a star will eventually be unable to
generate energy to push against gravity due to the
formation of heavier elements, thus causing it to
collapse on itself. It then undergoes a supernova
explosion that releases a tremendous amount of
energy enough to synthesize elements heavier than
iron. Examples of these elements are uranium and
thorium, which are some of the heaviest known
elements. This is done through the r-process that
involves rapid capture of neutrons by the atom.
Other heavy elements are also synthesized through
s-process involving slow neutron capture in red
giants
 1. 2.

3. 6. 10.

4. 7. 11.

5. 8.

9.
1. What is formed from proton-proton chain?
2. The explosion that happens at the end of a star’s life
3. Also known as carbon fusion cycle, which involves
repeated proton capture and beta-plus decay to
produce helium
4. The process that produces elements all the way to
iron
5. What element is in the core of a supergiant?
6. In the triple alpha process, 4He is referred to as the
_____.
7 ~ 10. Modified true or false. If the statement is true,
write True. Else, replace the underlined portion with the
correct word or phrase.
7. A star gets lighter as time goes on.
8. Most of the heaviest elements were formed in main-
sequence stars.
9. The heavy elements in a star are found in its core.
10. In stellar nucleosynthesis, heavier elements are
formed from combining lighter ones.
• Complete the alpha ladder up to Fe.