AUTONOMOUS

Semiconductor
Physics
 Statistical Mechanics
 The subject which deals with the
relationship between the overall
behavior of the system and the
properties of the particles is called
‘Statistical Mechanics’.

Statistical mechanics can be applied to systems

such as

 molecules in a gas

 photons in a cavity

 free electrons in a metal

 Statistical distribution
Statistical mechanics determines the most
probable way of distribution of total energy ‘ E ’
among the ‘ N ’ particles of a system in thermal
equilibrium at absolute temperature ‘ T ’.

In statistical mechanics one finds the number of

ways
‘ W ’ in which the ‘ N ’ number of particles of
energy ‘ E ‘ can be arranged among the available
states is given by.

N(E) = g(E) f(E)

g(E) is the number of states of energy E
And f(E) is the probability of occupancy of
each state of energy E .
FREE ELECTRON
THEORY OF METALS
AUTONOMOUS
Band Theory of Solids

Bloch stated this theory in 1928. According to this

theory, the free electrons moves in a periodic field
provided by the lattice. This theory is also called Band
theory of solids.
Behaviour of an electron in a periodic potential
The Kronig-Penney Model

Potential barrier
between the atoms.
Vo
0<x<a
U2(x) U1(x)
-b<x<0

x
X=0 X=a
mV0ba
X=-b

sin a p 2
We will eventually let
p
a
 cos a  cos K

V  and b 0 in the
problem.
 p

0 a

p0

a
E-k diagram :
E

Energy Allowed
gap
bands
Energy
gap
3 2   2 3
-
a
-
a
-
a a a a k
First
 Effective mass of an electron
 The effective mass of an electron arises due to periodic potential
provided by the lattice.
 When an electron in a periodic potential of lattice is accelerated by an
electric field, then the mass of the electron varies, mass is called
effective mass of the electron m*.
 Consider an electron of charge e and mass m acted on by electric field.
f  eE
ma  eE
eE
a
m

Acceleration is not a constant in the periodic lattice of the crystal so mass

of the electron replaced by its effective mass m* when it is moving in a
periodic potential or crystal lattice.

eE
a *
m
 E1

E1
E2

E1
E2
E3
N atoms

ΔE N energy le
 Conduction
band
Forbidden gap
INSULATORS
Valance band
Conduction
band SEMI CONDUCTORS

Forbidden gap

Conduction
Valance band band
Valance band

CONDUCTORS
In semi conductors the forbidden energy ( band ) gap is
very small as shown in a figure.
Ge and Si are the best examples of semiconductors.
Forbidden ( band ) is of the order of 0.7ev & 1.1ev.
 States and carrier distributions

 Determine the carrier distribution with respect to

energy in different bands.
 Determine the quantitative information of carrier
concentrations in different bands.

Two concepts will be introduced to determine this:

• Density of states
• Fermi-Dirac distribution and Fermi-Level
Density of states
 Density of states is the number of available electron states per unit
volume in an energy interval of E and E+dE.it is denoted by Z(E).
 It used to determine the Fermi energy at any temperature.

4 3 1

Density of states Z ( E )dE  3 (2m) 2 E 2 dE

h
16
 The highest filled level, which separates the
filled and empty levels at 0K is known as the
Fermi level and the energy corresponding to
this level is called Fermi energy (EF).

The probability that a particular quantum

state at energy E is filled with an electron is
given by Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E),
given by

1
f (E) 
1  exp(( E - E F ) / K BT )
 The probability finding energy for electron is

1
Fe(E) = Fe(E) =
1 + e (E –EF) / KBT
 The probability finding energy for hole is

1
F h(E) = 1 - Fe(E) = 1-
1 + e (E –Ef) / KBT
Covalent bond:
 In this type of bonding the valence electron are not
transferred from one atom to the other atom but their
neighboring atoms share their valence electrons under the
formation of a covalent bond.

+ + + +

H H H H
semiconductors
Valence Cell

Covalent bonds
Si

Si Si Si

Si
 Let us consider the silicon ,which as four valence
electrons .in order to gain the stability it has to make four
covalent bonds. in this regard each silicon atom makes
four covalent bonds with four other silicon atoms.
 Introduction :

 A Semiconductor is a material that has resistvity value between that

of a conductor and an insulator.
The conductivity of a semiconductor material can be varied
under an external electrical field .
In a metallic conductor ,current is by the flow of electrons .But
in Semiconductors current can be carried either by the flow electrons
or by the flow of positively –charged holes in the electron structure
of the material .
Semiconductors are mainly two types

1.Intrinsic (pure) semiconductors

2.Extrinsic (impure) semiconductors
 Intrinsic semiconductor:

 A semiconductor which does not have any kind of

impurities, behaves as an insulator at 0k and behaves as a
conductor at higher temperature is known as intrinsic
semiconductor or pure semiconductors.

 Germanium and silicon( 4th group elements) are the best

examples of intrinsic semiconductors and they possess
diamond cubic crystalline structure.

 The diamond structure is the result of directional covalent

bonding.
Intrinsic semiconductor
Valence Cell

Covalent bonds
Si

Si Si Si

Si
 In order to get insight view of an intrinsic semiconductor
let us consider the silicon ,which as four valence
electrons .in order to gain the stability it has to make four
covalent bonds. in this regard each silicon atom makes
four covalent bonds with four other silicon atoms.
 The electrons which are participating in the covalent
bonds are know as valence electron.
 If some energy supplied then covalent bonds break
,electrons will come out and move freely. resulting in the
formation of vacant sites in the covalent bonds. These
are known as positive charge carriers named as hole.
 The number of conduction electrons will be equal to
the vacant sites or holes in the valence bond.
 Carrier concentration:

 The number of charge carriers per unit volume is defined as

carrier concentration.

 Units: number of electrons/m3

Electron And Hole concentration in intrinsic semiconductor :

When a suitable form of energy is supplied to a

Semiconductor then electrons take transition from
valence band to conduction band. Hence, a free electron
in conduction band and a free hole in valence band is
formed. This phenomenon is known as
electron-hole pair generation.

In intrinsic semiconductor the number of conduction

electrons will be equal to the number of vacant sites
or holes in the valence band.
 Conduction band

Ec

Ec
E
Ef
Electron
energy

Ev

Valence band

Distance
Calculation of density of electrons :

Let ‘dn’ be the number of electrons available between energy

interval ‘E and E+ dE’ in the conduction band
dn  Z ( E ) F ( E ) dE 
topofband

n   z ( E ) F ( E ) dE
Ec
n  z ( E ) F ( E )dE
Ec

Where Z(E) dE is the density of states in the energy interval

E and E + dE And F(E) is the probability of electron occupancy.
We know that the density of states i.e, the number of energy
states per unit volume within the energy interval E and E + dE
is given by

4 3 1
Z ( E )dE  3 (2m) 2 E 2 dE
h
 4 3 1
Z ( E )dE  3 (2me ) 2 E 2 dE
h
Since the E starts at the bottom of the conduction band Ec
4 3 1
Z ( E )dE  3 (2me ) 2 ( E - Ec ) 2 dE
h

As the bottom edge of the conduction band Ec in fig. Corresponds to the

potential Energy of an electron at rest in the conduction band,the quantity
(E-Ec) represents K.E.of the conduction electron at higher energy levels.

Probability of an electron occupying an energy state E is given by

1
F (E) 
E - Ef
1  exp( )
kT
 When the number of particles is very small compared to the
energy levels, the probability of an energy state being occupied by
more than one electron is small. such situation is valid when (E-
Ef )>>KT.
 Under this circumstance , the number of available states in the
conduction band are larger than the number of electrons in the
band .Then Fermi-Dirac function can be approximated to
Boltzmann function.

E - EF  kT
1
F (E) 
E - Ef
For all possible 1  exp(
kT
)

E - EF E -E
temperatures F ( E )  exp - (
kT
)  exp( F
kT
)
 
4 3 1
E -E
n   3 ( 2me ) 2 ( E - Ec ) 2 exp( F )dE
Ec
h kT


4 3
n  3 ( 2me )  ( E - Ec ) 2 exp( E F - E )dE
1
 2

h Ec kT


4 -E
3 1
EF
 2
n  3 ( 2me ) exp( )  ( E - Ec ) exp(
2
)dE
h kT Ec kT
 To solve this integral, let us put

E - Ec  x
 E  Ec  x
dE  dx

4 -E
3 1
E
 n  3 (2me ) 2 exp( F )  ( E - Ec ) 2 exp( )dx
h kT 0 kT

4 3
E 1
E x
n  3 ( 2me ) 2 exp( F )  ( x ) 2 exp - ( c ) dx
h kT 0 kT

4 3
E - E 1
x
 2
n  3 ( 2me ) exp( F c
)  ( x) exp - (
2
)dx
h kT 0
kT
 1
 1
-x 
3 2
Using gamma function  ( x) exp(
0
2
kT
)dE  (kT ) 2
2


4 3
EF - Ec 1
x
 2
n  3 (2me ) exp( )  ( x) exp - (
2
)dx
h kT 0
kT
1
4 
3
EF - Ec 3
 2
n 3
( 2 me
2
) exp( )( kT ) 2
h kT 2

The number of electrons per unit volume of the material is given by

2mekT 32 E F - Ec
n  2( 2
) exp( )
h kT
 Calculation of density of holes :

Let ‘dp’ be the number of holes or vacancies in the energy interval

‘E and E + dE’ in the valence band

dp  Z ( E ){1 - F ( E )}dE

Where Z(E) dE is the density of states in the energy interval

E and E +dE and
1-F(E) is the probability of an electron not occupying the state
. i.e presence of a hole
 1
1 - F (E)  1 - { }
E - Ef
1  exp( )
kT
E - E f -1
1 - F ( E )  1 - {1  exp( )}
kT
sin ce.,
E - EF  kT
E - Ef
1 - F ( E )  exp( )
kT
 Density of holes in the valence band is

4 3 1
Z ( E )dE  3 (2mh ) 2 E 2 dE
h
Since Ev is the energy of the top of the valence band

4 3 1
Z ( E )dE  3 (2mh ) 2 ( Ev - E ) 2 dE
h
The number of holes in the valence band per unit volume
is given by

4 E - EF
Ev 3 1


 2
p 3
(2mh ) ( Ev - E ) exp(
2
)dE
-
h kT

4 -
3 v E 1
E E
 2
p  3 (2mh ) exp( F
)  ( Ev - E ) exp( )dE
2
h kT - kT
Ev - E  x
E  Ev - x  dE  -dx
Ev - x
Ev 1 0 1
E

-
( Ev - E ) exp( )dE  -  ( x) exp(
2
kT 
2
kT
)dx


-x
1
Ev
 exp( )  ( x) exp(
2
)dx
kT 0 kT
1
Ev  3 2
 exp( )( kT ) 2
kT 2
 1
4 3
 2- EF Ev  3 2
p  3 (2m ) exp(
h ) exp( )( kT ) 2
h kT kT 2

2 3
Ev - E F 3 1
 2
p  3 (2m ) exp(
h )( kT ) 
2 2
h kT

2m kT
 3
Ev - EF
p  2( h
2
) exp(2
)
h kT
 Intrinsic carrier concentration:

• In intrinsic semiconductors n = p
• Hence n = p = ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration

2 kT   2
3
Ev - Ec
ni  np  4(
2
2
3
) ( me mh ) exp( )
h kT
2kT 3   2
3
- Eg
 4( 2
) ( me mh ) exp( )
h kT
where
E g is., FEG
hence
2kT 32   4
3
- Eg
ni  2( 2
) ( me mh ) exp( )
h 2kT
Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductors:
in intrinsic semiconduc tors n  p
2me kT 32 E F - Ec 2mh kT 32 Ev - E F
2( 2
) exp( )  2 ( 2
) exp( )
h kT h kT
2me kT 32 E F - Ec 2mh kT 32 Ev - E F
( 2
) exp( )  ( 2
) exp( )
h kT h kT
2 EF mh 32 E  Ec
exp( )  (  ) exp( v )
kT me kT
taking logarithms on both sides
2 EF 3 mh E  Ec
 log(  )  ( v )
kT 2 me kT
3kT mh E  Ec
EF  log(  )  ( v )
4 me 2
if we assume that me  mh
Ev  Ec
EF  ( )
2
Thus the Fermi energy level EF is located half way between
the valence band and conduction and its position
is independent of temperature .

 the Fermi level is located in the middle of the forbidden

band.
 Conduction band

Ec

Ec
E
mh*  me*
Ef
Electron
energy

Ev

Valence band

Temperature
 Conduction band

Ec

Ec
E mh*  me*
mh*  me*
Ef
Electron
energy mh*  me*

Ev

Valence band
mh*  me*

Temperature
 With an increase in temperature, the Fermi level gets displaced
toward the bottom edge the of conduction band if mh*  me* or
downward to the top edge of the valence band if mh*  me*
Extrinsic semiconductors
 The electrical conductivity of pure semiconductors can be increased
by adding some impurity in the processes of crystallization .The
added impurity is very small of the order of one atom per million
atoms of the pure semiconductor.such semiconductor is called
Extrinsic Semiconductor. Usually, the impurities can be either 3rd
group elements or 5th group elements.

 Based on the impurities present in the extrinsic semiconductors, they

are classified into two categories.
1. n-type semiconductors
2. p-type semiconductors
 3rd group 4th group 5th group

 Boron (5) carbon (6) Nitrogen (7)

 Aluminum (13) Silicon (14) Phosphorus(15)

 Gallium (31) Germanium (32) Arsenic (33)

 Indium (49) Tin (50) Antimony (51)

 Thallium (81) Lead (82) Bismuth (83)

 N-type semiconductors

 When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure

semiconductor crystal during the crystal growth ,the resulting
crystal is called as N-type Extrinsic semiconductor

When pentavalent arsenic is added to pure semiconductor (Ge).As shown

In fig.the arsenic atoms fits in the Ge crystal in such a way that its four
Valence electrons from the covalent bond with four other Ge atoms .
The fifth electron of arsenic atom arsenic atom is not covalently bonded
but it is Loosely bound to the parent arsenic atom
Ge Ge Ge

Free electron

Ge As Ge

Arsenic atom

Ge Ge Ge
G
e
 The amount of energy needed to detach this fifth valence
electron from the impurity atom is of the order of onely
0.01eV.

 This energy very small and may be provided with

thermal agitation at room temperature .such liberated
valence electron is then free to move in the crystal lattice
in the same way as free electron in an intrinsic
semiconductor .
Pentavalent elements donate negative charges
(electrons) they are called N-type impurities and the
semiconductors doped with pentavalent impurities are
called N-type semiconductors.

The energy level of fifth electron is called donor level.

The donor level is close to the bottom of the conduction
band most of the donor level electrons are excited in to
the conduction band at room temperature and become
the majority charge carriers.

Hence in N-type semiconductors electrons are majority

carriers and holes are minority carriers.
 Conduction band
Ec

Ec
E Ed
Donor levels
Eg
Electron
energy

Ev

Valence band

temperature
 Conduction band
Ec
Ed
Donor Levels

Eg

Valence bond
 Carrier Concentration in N-type Semiconductors:

 Consider Nd is the donor concentration i.e., the number of

donor atoms per unit volume of the material and Ed is the
donor energy level.

 At very low temperatures all donor levels are filled with

electrons.

 With increase of temperature more and more donor atoms get

ionized and the density of electrons in the conduction band
increases.
 Density of electrons in conduction band is given by

2mekT 32 EF - Ec
n  2( 2
) exp( )
h kT
If we assume that Ef lies more than a few kT above the donor
level then the density of Ionized donors is given by

Ed - E F
N d {1 - F ( Ed )}  N d exp( )
kT

At very low temperatures, when electron-hole pairs are not generated due to
breaking of covalent bonds, the number of electrons in the conduction band
must be equal to the number of ionized donors.

2mekT 32 EF - Ec Ed - E F
2( 2
) exp( )  N d exp( )
h kT kT
 Taking logarithm and rearranging we get

E F - Ec Ed - E F 2mekT 32
( )-( )  log N d - log 2( 2
)
kT kT h
Nd
2 EF - ( Ed  Ec )  kT log
2me kT 2
3
2( 2
)
h
( E  Ec ) kT Nd
EF  d  log
2me kT 2
3
2 2
2( 2
)
h
at.,0k
( E d  Ec )
EF 
2
At 0k Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the donor level
Ed and the bottom of the conduction band Ec as shown in
figure below.
 E Conduction band
Ec

Ec  E d
EF 
2
Ed
N d  10 24 atoms / m 3

Ei
N d  10 21 atoms / m 3

Ev
Valence band
0 T
 Density of electrons in the conduction band :

2me kT 32 E F - Ec
n  2( ) exp( )
h2 kT
( E d  Ec ) kT Nd
{  log } - Ec
2me kT 2
3
2 2
2( )
E F - Ec h 2
exp( )  exp{ }
kT kT
1
E F - Ec ( E d  Ec ) (Nd ) 2
Ec
exp( )  exp{  log - }
2me kT 2 2
 3 1
kT 2kT kT
[ 2( 2
) ]
h
1
E F - Ec ( E d - Ec ) (Nd ) 2
exp( )  exp{  log }
2me kT 2 2
 3 1
kT 2kT
[ 2( ) ]
h2
1
E F - Ec (Nd )2
( E d - Ec )
exp( ) exp
2me kT 2 2
3 1
kT 2kT
[ 2( ) ]
h2
 2me kT 32 E F - Ec
n  2( 2
) exp( )
h kT
1
2me kT 32 (Nd )2
( E d - Ec )
n  2( ) { exp }
2me kT 2 2

2 3 1
h 2kT
[ 2( ) ]
h2
1
2 m 
kT 3
( E d - Ec )
n  (2 N d ) (
2 e
2
4
) exp
h 2kT

Thus we find that the density of electrons in the conduction band is

proportional to the square root of the donor concentration at moderately
low temperatures.
 Variation of Fermi levelwith temperature:

• To start with ,with increase of temperature Ef increases slightly.

• As the temperature is increased more and more donor atoms

are ionized.

• For a particular temperature all the donor atoms are ionized.

• Further increase in temperature results in generation of

electron-hole pairs due to breading of covalent bonds and the
material tends to behave in intrinsic manner.

• The Fermi level gradually moves towards the intrinsic Fermi level Ei.
 E Conduction band
Ec

Ec  E d Ed
EF 
2
N d  10 24 atoms / m 3

Ei
N d  10 21 atoms / m 3

Ev
Valence band
0 T
 P-type semiconductors

 When a trivalent elements such as B ,Al, Ga or Indium have three

electrons in their outer most orbits , added to the intrinsic semiconductor
all the three electrons of Indium are engaged in covalent bonding with the
three neighboring Si atoms.

 Indium needs one more electron to complete its bond. this electron maybe
supplied by Germanium, there by creating a vacant electron site or hole on
the semiconductor atom.

 Indium accepts one extra electron, the energy level of this impurity atom is
called acceptor level and this acceptor level lies just above the valence
band.

 These type of trivalent impurities are called acceptor impurities and the
semiconductors doped the acceptor impurities are called P-type
semiconductors.
Ge Ge Ge

hole

Ge In Ge

Indium atom

Ge Ge Ge
G
e
 Conduction band
Ec

Ec
E

Electron Eg
energy Acceptor levels
Ea
Ev

Valence band

temperature
 Even at relatively low temperatures, these acceptor atoms get
ionized taking electrons from valence band and thus giving
rise to holes in valence band for conduction.

 Due to ionization of acceptor atoms only holes and no

electrons are created.

 Thus holes are more in number than electrons and hence

holes are majority carriers and electros are minority carriers in
P-type semiconductors.
Carrier concentration in p-type semiconductors

Let Na is the acceptor concentration i.e. the number of

acceptor atoms per unit volume of the material and
Ea is the acceptor energy level.

At very low temperatures all the acceptor levels are empty.

With increase of temperature acceptor atoms get ionized i.e.,
the electrons move from valence band and occupy the vacant
sites in the acceptor Energy level there by leaving hole in the
valence band.
 2mhkT 32 Ev - EF
p  2( 2
) exp( )
h kT

If we assume that Ef lies below accepter level then the density of

ionized acceptors is given by

E F - Ea
N a F ( Ea )  N a exp( )
kT

Since the density of holes in the valence band is equal to

the density of ionized acceptors.
 2mh kT 32 Ev - E F E F - Ea
2( 2
) exp( )  N a exp( )
h kT kT
Ev  E a - 2 E F Na
exp( )
2mh kT 2
3
kT
2( 2
)
h
E  Ea - 2 E F Na
( v )  log
2mh kT 2
3
kT
2( 2
)
h
Ev  Ea kT Na
EF  - log
2mh kT 2
3
2 2
2( 2
)
h
at ,.0k
E  Ea
EF  v
2
i.e. at 0k , Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the acceptor level and the top
of the valence band as shown in figure below.
 E
Conduction band
Ec

N d  10 24 atoms / m 3
Ei

N d  10 21 atoms / m 3

E E
Ea
EF  v a
2

Ev
Valence band
0 T
Density of holes in the valence band
Density of holes in the valence is given by

2mhkT 32 Ev - EF
p  2( 2
) exp( )
h kT

Substituting for EF from

Ev - E F E E  Ea 1 Na
exp( )  exp{ v - v  log }
2mh kT 2
3
kT kT kT 2
2( )
h2
1
Ev - E a N 2
 exp{  log a
}
2m kT 2 2
 3 1
2kT h
[ 2( 2
) ]
h
1
Ev - E a N 2
 exp{ } a
}
2m kT 2 2
 3 1
2kT h
[ 2( 2
) ]
h
 Hence
2mh kT 32 Ev - E F
p  2( 2
) exp( )
h kT
1
2m kT
 3
E - Ea 2
N
p  2( h
) exp{ v
2
} a
}
2m kT 2 2

2 3 1
h 2kT h
[ 2( 2
) ]
h
1
2m 
kT 3
Ev - E a
p  (2 N a ) 2 ( h
) 4
exp{ }
h2 2kT

Thus we find that the density of holes in the

valence band is proportional to the square root of the
acceptor concentration at moderately low temperatures.
 Variation of Fermi levelwith temperature:

• To start with ,with increase of temperature Ef increases slightly.

• As the temperature is increased more and more acceptors atoms

are ionized.

• For a particular temperature all the acceptor atoms are ionized.

• Further increase in temperature results in generation of

electron-hole pairs due to breaking of covalent bonds and the
material tends to behave in intrinsic manner.

• The Fermi level gradually moves towards the intrinsic Fermi level Ei.
 E
Conduction band
Ec

N d  10 24 atoms / m 3
Ei

N d  10 21 atoms / m 3

E E
Ea
EF  v a
2

Ev
Valence band
0 T
DRIFT AND DIFFUSION
 DRIFT: Under the influence of an external electric
field , the charge carriers are forced to move in a
particular direction constituting electric current .This
phenomena as the drift
 E

Holes Electrons

Drifting charge carrier in a semiconductor

 Let there be ‘n’ electrons in a semiconductor under the
electric field ‘E’,they are drifted with a drift velocity Vd.
 Then the current density J=neVd
where ‘e’ is charge of an electron
Then conductivity σ=J/E=neVd/E

The drift velocity is also given by Vd=µnE

where µn is mobility of electrons .

J=neµnE
σ=J/E=neµn
And ρ=1/ σ=1/neµn
 In the case of a semiconductor , the drift current density
due to electrons is given by Jn(drift)=nµneE and the drift
current density due to holes is
Jp(drift)=pµpeE

Then the total drift current density

J(drift)=Jn(drift)+Jp(drift)
=nµneE+pµpeE
J(drift) =eE(nµn+pµp)
σ(drift)=enµn+epµp
Diffusion:
 In semiconductors ,in addition to drift current ,there is
another current known as diffusion current. This
current results results due to to a phenomenon called
as diffusion .
 Diffusion mechanism is analogous to that which
occurs in gas container where the gas density not
uniform .the gas particles move from from high
density area to low density area.
 Similarly in a semiconductor , the charge carriers flow
from highly doped area to lightly doped area in a non-
uniformly doped semiconductor .this is called
Diffusion
 Diffusion of
charge carriers

Drifting of
charge carriers

Diffusion of charge carriers in a semiconductor

 Let Δn be the excess electron concentration . Then according Fick’s
first states that diffusion flux F.the rate of diffusion of electrons
 
-  (n)
x
 n 
 - Dn
x

 Where Dn is the diffusion coefficient , the diffussion

current density due to electrons is given by Jn(diffusion )

   
J n  -e - Dn ( n) 
 x 

J n  eDn n 
x
 The diffusion current density due to holes
  
J p (diffusion)  e - D p p 
 x 

J p (diffusion)  -eD p p 
x

 The total current density due to electrons is the sum of the current
densities due to drift and diffusion of electrons .

 Jn=Jn(drift)+Jn(diffusion)


J n  ne n E  eDn n 
x
 Generation and
Recombination of charges
 Generation and Recombination of charges :In a pure
semiconductor ,under thermal equilibrium condition , the number
of electrons and holes is always same . Due to thermal agitation ,new
electron –hole pairs generated. At the same time recombination
process, other electron –hole pairs are disappear .
 The recombination is a process in which a free electron falls in to a
hole. the merging of a free electron and hole is called recombination
.
 The creation of electron –hole pair and their recombination goes on
continuously .
 The average time between generation and disappearance of an
electron –hole pair is known as average life time of carrier .this
represented by  p

for holes and  n for electrons

 Conduction band
Ec

Ec
E

Generation Recombination Eg
Electron
energy

Ev

Valence band

Distance
CONTINUITY EQUATION
 The carriers (electrons and holes) concentration in a
body of semiconductor is a function of both time and
distance .
 To determine the concentration of carriers with
respect time and distance ,we have to solve a partial
differential equation is known as continuity equation .
 Therefore ,continuity equation is a differential
equation which gives a functional relationship between
concentration of carriers with time and distance .
 Y

P holes Area A
Ip per m3 Ip+dIp

O X
x X+dX

Z
 Consider an infinitesimal semiconductor element of length
dx and cross-sectional area A,as shown in fig..

 Let p be the average hole concentration within the this

volume

 Considering the problem only 1-D.

 Let the current entering the volume at x is Ip at a time t

while at the same time , the current leaving the volume at
x+dx is Ip+dIp. Thus ,more current (i.e.,dIp coulomb/sec)
leaves the volume for a positive value of dIp.
 There will be a change of concentration due to the following
factors:

** Concentration of holes decreases due to additional current

dIp,
** Concentration of holes increases due to thermal
generation,
** Concentration of holes decreases due to recombination .

Let us consider these factors one by one:

** There is a decrease of current dIp in the volume ,i.e there is a net
decrease in the concentration of holes .The decrease of holes per
second is (-∂Ip/e),where ‘e’ is the magnitude of charge .So , the
decrease in hole concentration per second due to current

I p
-
e  ( Adx) Where Adx=elementary volume
J p

ex
 Ip 
 J p  
 A
**There is an increase of holes per unit volume per second given by
p0
G due to thermal generation
p

** If p is the concentration of holes , then decrease of holes per

unit volume per second due to recombination , then

- p
recombination rate (R)= p
 We know that the charge can neither be generated nor destroyed
,the increase in hole concentration (∂p/∂t) must be equal to the
algebraic sum of the above described factors.
 Therefore

p p0 p J p
 - -
t  p  p ex
p po - p 1 J p
 -
t p e x
This equation is known as continuity equation for holes
 But we know that in semiconductor current due to drift and
diffusion

p ( po - p) 2 p Ep
  Dp 2 -  p
t p x x

Continuity eq for holes

 Direct band gap and indirect band gap semiconductors:

 We known that the energy spectrum of an electron moving in the presence of

periodic potential field is divided into allowed and forbidden zones.

 In crystals the inter atomic distances and the internal potential energy
distribution vary with direction of the crystal. Hence the E-k relationship and
hence energy band formation depends on the orientation of the electron wave
vector to the crystallographic axes.

 In few crystals like gallium arsenide, the maximum of the valence band occurs
at the same value of k as the minimum of the conduction band as shown in
below. this is called direct band gap semiconductor.
 E Conduction
E Conduction
band
band

Eg
Eg

k k

Valence band Valence

band
 In few semiconductors like silicon the maximum of the
valence band does not always occur at the same k value as the
minimum of the conduction band as shown in figure. This we
call indirect band gap semiconductor.

 In direct band gap semiconductors the direction of motion of

an electron during a transition across the energy gap remains
unchanged.

 Hence the efficiency of transition of charge carriers across the

band gap is more in direct band gap than in indirect band gap
semiconductors.
 Hall effect

When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current

carrying conductor or semiconductor, voltage is developed
across the specimen in a direction perpendicular to both the
current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called the
Hall effect and voltage so developed is called the Hall voltage.
 Z

B N

Q X VH
P ---------
currentElectronF- - F EH d O
i + + + +Vd+ +
S R
 Consider a uniform ,thick metal strip placed with its length
paralle to the X-axis .Let current ‘i’ is passed in the
conductor along X-axis and a magnetic field B is
established along Y-axis. Due to this magnetic field ,the
charge carriers experience a force F Perpendicular to X-Y
plane ,i.e along Z-axis .
 If the charge carriers are electrons ,then they will be
experience force in the positive direction of Z. Hence they
will be accumulated on the upper surface of the strip .
 Due to this fact the upper side will be charged negatively
while lower side will be charged positively. thus ,a
transverse potential differences is created .this e.m.f is
known as Hall e.m.f.
 There is displacement of charge carriers .this gives rise to a
transverse field known as Hall electric field EH.this field
acts as inside the conductor to oppose the side way drift of
the charge carrier.

 When the equilibrium is reached ,the magnetic deflecting

forces on the charge carriers are balanced by the electric
forces due to electric field
 Magnetic deflecting force
F  q(vd  B)
Hall electric deflecting force

F  qEH
As the net force on the charge carriers become Zero

q(vd  B)  qEH  0
E H  - ( vd  B )
Where v d is drift velo city
writing in terms of magnitude only
EH  d B
 The relation between current density and drift velocity is

J
vd 
nq
Where n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume.
E H  vd B
J
EH  ( B)
nq
1
E H  ( ) JB
nq
E H  RH  JB
1 E
RH ( Hall ,.coefficient )   H
nq JB
If VH be the Hall voltage in equilibrium ,the Hall electric field.

VH
EH 
d
Where d is the width of the slab.
E
RH  H
JB
1 VH
RH  
JB d
If t is the thickness of the sample,
Then its cross section is dt and current density
I
J
dt
VH  RH JBd
I
VH  RH ( ) B
t
V t
RH  H
IB
 Since all the three quantities EH , J and B are measurable,
the Hall coefficient RH and hence the carrier density can be
find out.

 Generally for N-type material since the Hall field is

developed in negative direction compared to the field
developed for a P-type material, negative sign is used while
denoting hall coefficient RH.
Applications
 The sign of charge carrier is determined

 The mobility of charge carriers is measured directly .

µe=σnRH

 We can decide whether a material is a metal

,semiconductor or insulator.

 Hall effect can be used to measure the drift velocity of

the charge carriers .