Definition: It is the determination of the individuality of a person based on

certain physical characteristics.

Objects:
•In Criminal
•In Civil cases
• In Forensic, it is important in cases like decomposition,
burns, fire & explosions, mass disasters, etc.

1
THE CORPUS DELICTI: means the real facts of any
criminal offences. It is also known as the body of
offence or the essence of crime.

2
 Identification Data

In Living & Dead

Race, Religion, Sex, Age, General development,
stature, Birthmarks, Moles, Scars, Tattoo marks,
Injuries, Occupational marks, Anthropometric
measurements, Fingerprints & other prints, Teeth,
Clothes, jewellery, etc.
In Living
Handwritings, Speech, Gait, Manners, Habits,
Memory, Education, IQ, etc.

3
 1. RACE
1. Complexion (skin colour)

2. Eyes

4
3. Hair

4. Cloths

5
5. Skeleton
Cephalic Index=Max. Breadth of Skull/Max.
Length of Skull x 100
Dolico-cephalic (long headed) – 70 to 75
Mesati-cephalic (medium headed) - 75 to 80
Brachy-cephalic (short headed) - 80 to 85

6
 Caucasian Mongolian Negro
Skull Round Square Narrow
Orbit Triangular Round Square
Palate Triangular Round Rectangular
N.A. Elongated Round Broad
Limbs Normal Short Long

7
 2. RELIGION

8
 3. SEX Determination
Sex determination is important in cases of rape,
impotence, marriage, divorce, legitimacy, heirship,
sports, jobs etc.
Sex Chromatin (Barr Body): can be made by
examining buccal smear, saliva, hair, bone
marrow, amniotic fluid etc.

Concealed Sex: Hiding of sex by changing dress or

any other method. Mainly done by criminals. It can
be detected by Physical examination.

9
Intersex: It is an intermingling of characters of both
sexes in one individual.
1. Gonadal Agenesis
2. Gonadal Dysgenesis
Klinefelter’s Syndrome (47, XXY)
Turner’s Syndrome (45, XO)
3. True Hermaphroditism (Bisexuality)
Presence of an ovary and a testicle or two ovotestis.
4. Pseudo Hermaphroditism
Gonadal tissue of one sex internally, but appearance of
opposite sex.
Male PH(XY): Testicular feminisation
Female PH(XX): Adrenal Hyperplasia
10
Medullary Index of Bones: Useful to determine sex
by long bones.
M.I=diameter of medulla/Diameter of bone X 100

Sexing by skeleton in Adult

Whole Skeleton 100%
Pelvis + Skull 98 %
Pelvis 95 %
Skull 90 %
Long Bones 80 %

11
 4. AGE
Determined by Teeth, Ossification of Bones,
Secondary Sexual Characteristics, Development.

TEETH (Forensic Dentistry, Odontology)

Age determined by their development & by their
secondary changes
Types
1. Temporary Teeth (20 in nos.)
2. Permanent Teeth (32 in nos.)

12
Methods to record Teeth data (Charting)
1. Universal system
2. Palmer’s notation
3. Federation dentaine Internationale Digit System
4. Anatomical Chart
5. Haderup system

13
Temporary Teeth: smaller, lighter, narrow, china
white in colour, more constricted at neck, smaller
roots etc.

Tooth Eruption
Central Incisor 6 to 9 months
Lateral Incisor 7 to 12 months
1st Molar 12 to 14 months
Canine 17 to 18 months
2nd Molar 20 to 30 months

14
Permanent Teeth: larger, heavier, broad, ivory white
in colour, less constricted at neck, larger roots etc.
4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 premolars, 6 molars in each
jaw.
Types of Permanent Teeth
1. Successional Teeth: They erupt in place of
temporary teeth.
2. Superadded Teeth: They do not have deciduous
predecessors.
3. Impacted Teeth: They never erupt in the jaw

15
 Tooth Eruption
1st Molar 6 to 7 years
Central Incisor 6 to 8 years
Lateral Incisor 7 to 9 years
1st Premolar 9 to 11 years
2nd Premolar 10 to 12 years
Canine 11 to 12 years
2nd Molar 12 to 14 years
3rd Molar 17 to 25 years

16
Universal System

Palmer’s Notation

Haderup System

17
Federation Dentaire Internationale

18
Anatomical Charting

19
 GUSTAFSON’S METHOD
Age estimation is done by this method after
21 years by examining by secondary
changes of the teeth.
1. Attrition
2. Paradentosis
3. Secondary Dentin
4. Cementum Apposition
5. Root Resorption
6. Transparency of the Root

20
Limitation: This method is not useful for first
15 years of life due to absence of all changes
& the error is about 4 to 7 years.
Grading
0 – No change
1 – Early change
2 – Obvious change
3 – Maximum change

21
22
 Secondary sexual Characteristics

In males (at about 14 to 15 years)

Hairs on pubis, enlargement of penis & testes,
hairs on axilla, hairs on face, voice changes
etc.
In females (12 to 13 years)
Development of breasts, hairs on mons
veneris, development of labia, 1st
menstruation, psychological changes etc.

23
 Medico-legal Importance of Age
1. Criminal Responsibility
- Any act done by a child under the age of 7
years is not an offence (IPC 82).
- A child between 7 to 13 years is capable of
committing a crime, if he has sufficient
maturity (IPC 83).
- A child below 12 years can not give a valid
consent to suffer any harm done for his good
faith or his benefit (IPC 89).
- A person above 18 years can give a valid
consent (IPC 87).
- A child above 5 years is liable for punishment
for any unlawful act (Indian Railway Act 118).
24
2. Judicial Punishment
If a Juvenile commits a crime or unlawful act, he
is sent to special home for the period until he
becomes Major with or without fine. (According
to The Juvenile Justice Act, 2000).
No Juvenile shall be sentenced to death or life
imprisonment
3. Rape
Sexual intercourse by a man with a girl under 15
years even she is his own wife, or other girl
under 16 years even with her consent is Rape.

25
4. Kidnapping
 Kidnapping means taking away a person by illegal
means.
 It has been described under IPC 361 to 369.
 It is an offence
 To kidnap a child under 10 years with the intention of
taking any movable property dishonestly (IPC 369).
 To kidnap a minor (girl under 16 & boy under 18) from
lawful guardianship (IPC 361).
 To kidnap a minor for begging (IPC 363).
 To kidnap a woman for compelling her marriage (IPC
366).
 To kidnap a girl under 18 years for prostitution (IPC
366-A)
 To import a girl under 21 years to India from foreign
country for the purpose of sexual intercourse.(IPC 366-
B)
26
5. Employment
A child below 14 years can not be employed to
work in factory or mine or other risky places. A
person after 15 years is allowed for the same, if
a fitness certificate is produced.
6. Attainment of Majority
A person attains majority on completion of 18
years but when a person is under the
guardianship of court or under a guardian
appointed by the court, he attains majority on
completion of 21 years (Indian Majority Act 3).
7.Evidence
Any child can give evidence, if court is satisfied
that the child is truthful (IEA 118).
27
8. Marriage: A male under 21 years and a female
under 18 years can not contract marriage (Child
marriage Restrain Act, 1978).
9. Infanticide: The charge of infanticide can not
be supported, if the infant can be proved under
the age of 7 months of IUL.
10. Criminal Abortion: A woman who has passed
the age of child bearing age can not be charged
for criminal abortion.
11. Identification: An approximate age is
important in any chain of identity data.
12. Impotence & Sterility: A boy is sterile but not
impotent before puberty, woman is sterile before
puberty & after menopause.
28
 Rule of Hasse

- This is a rough method of calculating the age of

foetus.

- In this method height of foetus is measured in

centimeters.

- During the first five months, the square root of

the length gives the approximate age.

- After five months, the length divided by five gives

the approximate age.
29
Month Height (cm) Weight (g)
1st 1 2.5
2nd 4 10
3rd 9 30
4th 16 120
5th 25 400
6th 30 700
7th 35 1000
8th 40 1500-2000
9th 45 2250-3000
10th 50 2500-5000
30
 Stature
Stature means Built of a person (Height).
- It is usually measured in cm.
- It is less in the afternoon & evening (1.5 -
2cm).
- It is more on lying position (1.5-2cm).
- It is reduced in malnutrition.
- It gradually decreases after 30 years
(0.6mm).
- It is more after death (2 cm).
- It can be measured by bones using Karl
Pearson formula, trotter & Glesser’s method,
etc.
31
Approximately Determined by
1. The length from Vertex to S. Pubis x 2 = the
stature.
2. The skeleton height + 2 to 4 cm = the stature.
3. The length from tip of middle finger to the tip of
opposite middle finger = the stature.
4. (Length of one u. limb x 2) + 30 cm + 4 cm = the
stature.
5. The length from sternal notch to S. Pubis x 3.3 =
the stature
6. The length of olecranon process to tip of middle
finger x 19/5 = the stature
7. The height of head x 7 = the stature
8. The length of vertibral column x 100/35 = the
stature
9. The length of foot x 100/15 = the stature
32
 Anthropometry
 It is also known as Bertillon system.
 It is useful only after 21 years.
 This system includes
1. Basic Data like skin colour, eyes, hairs, ears,
nose, chin etc.
2. Body marks like birth marks, moles, scars,
tattoo marks etc.
3. Measurements like height, weight, diameters of
head, arm, forearm, chest, abdomen thigh, leg
etc.
4. Photographs of head and face.
 This system is now out dated due to
Dactylography. 33
 Dactylography
 History
- This system is known as Fingerprint system, Henry-
Galton system and Dermatoglyphics.
- Prof. M. Mulpighi was the first person to study friction
ridges.
- Sir William Hershel was the first person to use this
system in India in 1858.
- Dr.Henry was the first person to mention
characteristics of fingerprints in 1880
- Sir Francis Galton has Systematized this system in
1892. Sir Edward Henry has modified this system and
officially introduced for identification in UK.
- The first fingerprint bureau was established in
Kolkata.

34
 Introduction
- Fingerprints are the impression or patterns formed by
the papillary ridges or friction ridges of epidermis of
the fingers.
- The process of taking this for identification is known
as Fingerprint system.
- Fingerprints are mainly due to the basal germinal
layer of epidermis (Stratum Germinativum).
- The ridges appear between 12 to 16 weeks of IUL &
remains unchanged throughout life.
- The fingerprints are unique for the person, even for
identical twins & they are not inherited.
- They may persist for years if undisturbed. On paper,
they may remain for more than 3 years.
35
36
 Classification

1. Loops (60-65%)
Ulnar & Radial
2. Whorls (30-35%)
Concentric, Spiral, double spiral & Almond
3. Arches (6-7%)
Plain, Tented & Exceptional
4. Composite (1-2%)
Central pocket, Lateral pocket, twinned loop &
accidental

37
38
Plain Arch Tented Arch Radial Loop Ulnar Loop

Whorl Central pocket Double Loop Accidental

39
40
 Comparison
In routine practice 10 to 12 points are compared.
This points are the characteristics of the prints, not the pattern.

This points are: Bifurcation, ending, lake formation, island

formation etc.
Bifurcation Island Ending Dot/Lake

41
Ending Bifurcation Dot Island Lake Hook

Bridge Dbl Bifur. Trpl Bifur. Opp. Bifur. Ridge Crossing Opp. Bifur./End.

42
 Mode of Production

- During excitement, sweat is secreted through sub-

epidermal sweat glands.

- This sweat contains 99% water & 1% solids like salt,

sulphates, carbamates, lactic acid, urea, formic acids,
fatty acids, acetic acids, butyric acids, albumin etc.

- These all leave print mark on the surface.

43
 Types of Fingerprints

1. Latent Print (Invisible Print): It is most common type.

2. Visible Print: It is visible due to Blood, Ink, oil or

other medium.

3. Plastic Print: It is the print on soap, mud, cheese,

candle, dried blood, adhesives etc.

44
 Techniques of Fingerprinting
- Hands are washed, cleaned and dried.
- Printer’s Ink is applied on fingertips.
- Ink should be applied properly.
- Prints are taken on white unglazed paper.
- It can be taken by plain or rolled method.

45
46
 Lifting of Fingerprints
1. Fingerprints can be taken from any surface by using
cellophane tap or by photography, if it is visible.
2. In case of latent print, prints can be visualized by
oblique lighting, UV lights or dusting the surface with
reagents.
Commonly used reagents are grey power (Chalk &
Mercury) & white power (Lead carbonate & French
chalk).
Other reagents are Charcoal, Aluminium dust,
Iodine vapour, Silver nitrate, Ninhydrin, Osmium
tetroxide, X-rays, Diazafluorenone, ect.
Sprays: See-Through, UV Trap, SPR Black, Nin Plus,
Allprint, Mistral's Crystal Violet, Ferrotrace, etc.
47
 Fingerprints in Decomposed Bodies
- Skin from each terminal phalanx is taken by knife
from each finger up to 1 cm.
- Skin is preserved in 10% formalin in separate
container & sent to Fingerprint Bureau.
- If skin is shrivelled, it should be treated with 20%
acetic acid or injection of air, glycerin or liq. paraffin is
given into the bulb.
- If skin is dehydrated, it should be treated with Pot.
Hydroxide in warm water.
- If skin is fragile, lead carbonate & paraffin is applied
on the shin and then X-ray is taken.
- If skin is mummified, injection of paraffin or formalin
can be given before removing them.
48
 Mutilation of Fingerprints

- They can be destroyed by burns, corrosives or

erosion, if the true skin is completely lost.

- Loss of pattern can be occurred due to dermatitis,

eczema, scleroderma, leprosy, electrical injury,
radiation, paralysis, rickets, epidermal atrophy,
coeliac disease, etc.

49
 Computerisation
- Computerised automatic fingerprint system is known
as “FINDER”.
- In this method, light is reflected on fingers & the data
is measured digitally & they are recorded & stored.
- Comparison & Identification can be done accurately
by this method. (1 square cm area is taken for these.)
- Millions of fingerprint data can be stored, delivered
and printed in fraction of seconds by this method.

50
51
 Medico-legal significance
- Recognition of impression at scene of crime. (by
detecting prints on weapons, objects, furniture,
clothes etc.)
- Identification in cases of suicides, accidents, mass
disasters, loss of memory, comatose patients etc.
- Identification in case of exchange of newborns.
- To maintain identity data. (jobs, education, legal & civil
documents)
- In criminal cases: Fingerprints of all ten fingers are
taken. In civil cases, only left thumb impression is
taken.
- Approximate age group can be determined.

52
 Poroscopy
- It is a method of identification.
- It is invented by Dr. Edmond Locard.
- This method is further study of fingerprints.
- In this method, microscopic pores are examined.
These pores are actually mouths of sub-epithelial
sweat glands.
- Each milimeter of skin contain about 10 to 20 pores.
These pores are permanent throughout life and vary
in size, shape, numbers & position.
- It has limited value.
- It is useful only when fragments of fingerprints are
available.
53
 Foot Prints

- Same as fingers, toes & heels have specific unique &

permanent pattern.

- It is mainly useful in cases of exchange of newborns.

That’s why routinely footprints are taken in every
hospital after the birth of baby.

- It is also useful at scene of crime for the detection of

crime & criminals. In such cases shoe print is also
used.

54
 Palato Prints

 Lip Prints (Cheiloscopy)

- Types: Vertical, Branched, Intersected, Reticular &
Irregular

 Ear Prints

 Nose Prints

 Nail Prints

 Retina Prints
55
56
 Superimposition
 This is a method to determine whether the skull is
that of the person, which is in available photograph.
 This method was 1st used by Glaister & Brash in
1935.
 photograph of front view & skull bone
 The photo is modified by adjusting inter pupillary
distant
 Skull with mandible
 Negative of skull is prepared & matched with the
photo by super imposing each other.
 Previously it is done by using camera & mount
technique. Now-a-days, this is done with the help of
computer.
57
58
59
 Comparison Points
1. Exact fixation of eyes
2. The Nasion
3. The Prosthion
4. Nasal Spine
5. Lower Nasal border
6. Supraorbital margins
7. Lower border of upper Jaw
8. Angle of the Jaws
9. Zygomatic arch
10. External Auditory Meatus
11. Teeth

60
 Importance
- Positive test suggests that the skull might be of
the person who is in photograph.
- Negative test suggest that the skull is definitely
not of the person who is in photograph.
So, negative test has more medico-legal value.
 Video Superimposition
 Facial Sketching & Reconstruction
Other methods of identification are: Bone
comparison, Skull suture pattern, X-rays,
Veins of hands, Stomach picture, Deformities
etc.

61
 Scars
Introduction
- Scar is a fibrous tissue covered by epithelium,
which produced due to the process of healing.
- Scars are permanent. They produced if the
dermis is injured.
- Hair follicles, sweat glands, pigments etc are not
present on the scars.
- Vascularity is comparatively less in scars.
- In criminal & civil both cases, scars have great
medico-legal significance.
- During the process of growing, they grow in size
but the shape remains same.
62
 Characteristics
- Abrasions & Incised
- Stab wound
- Lacerated wound
- Firearm wound
- Corrosives
- Scalds
- Burns
- Vaccination
- Some diseases
- Better visualisation

63
 Age of Scar
Age Scar
5 to 6 days Reddish/ Bluish (Angry)
7 to 14 days Pale, Soft & Sensitive
15 to 60 days No change
2 to 6 months White, Hard, Glistening
After 6 months No change

 Erasure
- Erasure can be possible by skin grafting.
- Alteration (Minimization) can be done by
excision.

64
 Medico-legal importance
- Marks of identification.
- Type of injury (by medical & legal classification)
- Weapon or object
- Time of assault
- Previous operative procedure
- Previous illness, therapeutic procedures
- Their location is very much important medico-
legally
- Signs of delivery & type of delivery
- Drug abuse & drug addiction

65
 Medico-legal Importance of Eyes
1. For Identification
(a) Colour, shape & size
(b) Absence of one/both eyes & Artificial eye
(c) Deep & Prominent or bulging
(d) Squint, Nystagmus & cataract
(e) In living, eyes are important for mental &
psychological status
2. For Asphyxia
Congestion, petechial haemorrhages & proptosis
3. For Injuries
Black eye, congestion, effusion, haemorrhage, foreign
bodies, ulceration, rupture of cornea & retina, all mech.
Injuries, cataract, sublaxation of lens etc.
66
4. For poisoning
(a) Dilated Pupils: Dhatura, atropine, Belladonna, Cannabis,
Cocaine, Alcohol, Ergot, Calotropis, Strychnine, Oleander,
HCN, Anti-histaminic, Anti depressant etc.
(b) Contracted Pupils: Opium, OP compounds, Phenol,
Neostagmine, Physostigmine, Pilocarpine, Nicotine, Caffeine,
Cabamates, Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines etc.
(c) Alternate Dilatation & Contraction: Aconite
(d) Large & Fixed: Anoxia & Anti cholinergic drugs
(e) small & Fixed: Opiods & Cholinergic
(f) Variable & Fixed: Hypothermia & Barbiturates
(g) Nystagmus: Ethanol, Phenytoin, Carbamazepine,
Diazepines
5. Eye Diseases
6. Acuity of Vision
7. The Workmen’s Compensation Act
67
 Hair
- The methodical study of hairs is known as
“Trichology”.
- The growth rate is 0.4 mm/day.
- Examination Points
1. Hair or Fiber
2. Human or Animal
3. Location of hair
4. Sex
5. Age
6. Alteration (bleaching, dying, disease)
7. Comparison
8. Type of removal
9. Type of injury
68
69
- Medico-legal importance

1. Connection between scene of crime & accused/victim

2. Sexual assaults
3. Type of object/weapon & type of injury
4. Foreign body or stains on hairs
5. Poisoning
6. Singeing of hairs
7. Differentiating burns & scalds
8. Age & Sex
9. Occupation & profession
10. Time since death
11. Blood grouping & DNA typing

70
 Medico-Legal Importance of Teeth
- The 2nd most common method
- Age estimation
- Sex & Blood group
- Bite marks pattern
- Poisons (Arsenic, Mercury, H2SO4, HNO3 etc.)
- Legal classification of injuries
- Dentures
- In burns & putrefaction cases

71
 Medico-Legal Importance of Bite marks

- Useful for identification of criminals.

- Human bite marks are semicircular or
crescentic.
- The severity of injury can be judged on bite
mark site.
- Sites of the marks are useful medico-legally
(Love bites, Self inflicted bites, artificial marks).
- Race, sex, blood group, occupation, habits,
social position can be determined.

72
 Tattoo Marks
 Definition
- They are designs made in the skin
- by multiple small puncture wounds
- with needles or an electric vibrator
- dipped in colouring media.

 Examination
- During examination: Their numbers, pattern,
site, size, colour should be noted.
- Their diagram should be drawn.
- Their photography should be done according to
the case.
73
 Colouring media/Dyes
- They vary from country to country.
- Commonly used dyes are: Indian Ink (Blue),
Carbon (Black), cinnabar (Red), Chromic Acid
(Green), Indigo (Blue), Cobalt (Gray), Prussian
(Blue), Ultramarine (Blue) etc.

 Production
- Its an Art, done by experts.
- When dye is injected up to dermis, the
permanent designs are formed. But, if dye
injected deeply, Tattoo disappears gradually.

74
 Sites
- In India: Forearms, Legs, Upper part of
Chest, Neck & Chin
- In Foreign: Arms, Shoulders, Abdomen, Back
of Neck, Chest
- But they can be found anywhere in the body.
 Fading/Disappearance
- The rate of fading depends on composition of
dyes & depth of deposition.
- Clothing prevents fading.
- Constant friction & rubbing increase fading.

75
 Visualisation
- They easily seen even in decomposed bodies.
- Tattoos are better visualised by magnifying lens.
- Invisible or Faded Tattoos can be seen by UV
light & Infrared light.

 Complications
- Inflammation
- Sepsis
- Abscess
- Gangrene
- Syphilis, AIDS, TB, Leprosy etc.

76
 Erasure
- Skin Grafting
- Excision
- Burns & scalds
- Corrosives
- Injury (Scar)
- Electrolysis
- Carbon dioxide Snow
- Caustic substances: Tannic acid, Zinc Chloride
etc.
- Laser beams
- Small Pox, Chicken Pox, Measles, Eczema etc.

77
 Medico-legal Significance

78
"There are two ways to spread happiness;
either be the light who shines it or be
the mirror who reflects it."

Thank You… 79