A3 Atomic Structure

Atomic Structure
Unit 3
http://www.unit5.org/chemistry
The Greeks
History of the Atom
• Not the history of atom, but

the idea of the atom
• In 400 B.C the Greeks tried to
understand matter
(chemicals) and broke them
down into earth, wind, fire,
and air.
~
~
• Democritus and Leucippus
Greek philosophers
Greek Model
“To understand the very large,
we must understand the very small.”
Democritus
• Greek philosopher
• Idea of ‘democracy’
• Idea of ‘atomos’
– Atomos = ‘indivisible’
– ‘Atom’ is derived
• No experiments to support Democritus’s model of atom
idea
No protons, electrons, or neutrons
• Continuous vs. discontinuous
theory of matter Solid and INDESTRUCTABLE
Democritus
DEMOCRITUS (400 BC) – First Atomic Hypothesis
Atomos: Greek for “uncuttable”. Chop up a piece of matter until you reach the atomos.
Properties of atoms:
• indestructible.
• changeable, however, into different forms.
• an infinite number of kinds so there are an infinite number of elements.
• hard substances have rough, prickly atoms that stick together.
• liquids have round, smooth atoms that slide over one another.
• smell is caused by atoms interacting with the nose – rough atoms hurt.
• sleep is caused by atoms escaping the brain.
• death – too many escaped or didn’t return.
• the heart is the center of anger.
• the brain is the center of thought.
• the liver is the seat of desire.
“Nothing exists but atoms and space, all else is opinion”.

Four Element Theory
FIRE
• Plato was an atomist
• Thought all matter was Hot Dry
composed of 4 elements:
– Earth (cool, heavy)
AIR ‘MATTER’ EARTH
– Water (wet)
– Fire (hot)
Wet
– Air (light) Cold
– Ether (close to heaven)
WATER
Relation of the four elements and the four qualities
Blend these “elements” in different proportions to get all substances

Some Early Ideas on Matter
Anaxagoras (Greek, born 500 B.C.)

–Suggested every substance had its own kind of “seeds” that clustered together to
make the substance, much as our atoms cluster to make molecules.
Empedocles (Greek, born in Sicily, 490 B.C.)

–Suggested there were only four basic seeds – earth, air, fire, and water. The
elementary substances (atoms to us) combined in various ways to make
everything.
Democritus (Thracian, born 470 B.C.)

–Actually proposed the word atom (indivisible) because he believed that all
matter consisted of such tiny units with voids between, an idea quite similar to
our own beliefs. It was rejected by Aristotle and thus lost for 2000 years.
Aristotle (Greek, born 384 B.C.)

–Added the idea of “qualities” – heat, cold, dryness, moisture – as basic elements
which combined as shown in the diagram (previous page).
Hot + dry made fire; hot + wet made air, and so on.
O’Connor Davis, MacNab, McClellan, CHEMISTRY Experiments and Principles 1982, page 26,
Early Ideas on Elements
Robert Boyle stated...
– A substance was an
element unless it could
be broken down to two
or more simpler
substances.
– Air therefore could not

be an element because
it could be broken down
in to many pure
substances. Robert Boyle
Foundations of Atomic Theory
Law of Conservation of Mass
Mass is neither destroyed nor created during ordinary chemical
reactions.
Law of Definite Proportions

The fact that a chemical compound contains the same elements
in exactly the same proportions by mass regardless of the size
of the sample or source of the compound.
Law of Multiple Proportions

If two or more different compounds are composed of the
same two elements, then the ratio of the masses of the
second element combined with a certain mass of the first
elements is always a ratio of small whole numbers.
Conservation of Atoms
John Dalton
2 H2 + O2 2 H2O
H
H
H2 O O H 2O
H
O2 H
+
O H
H
H2
H O H 2O
H
4 atoms hydrogen 4 atoms hydrogen

2 atoms oxygen 2 atoms oxygen
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 204
Legos are Similar to Atoms
H
H
H2 H O O H 2O
H
+ O2
H O H
H2 H O H 2O
H
Lego's can be taken apart and built into many different things.
Atoms can be rearranged into different substances.
Conservation of Mass
High
voltage
electrodes
Before reaction glass After reaction

chamber
O2
High
voltage
H2O
H2 5.0 g H2
O2 0 g H2
80 g O2
45
? g H2O
300 g (mass
of chamber) 40 g O2
+
385 g total 300 g (mass
of chamber)
+
385 g total
Law of Definite Proportions
Joseph Louis Proust (1754 – 1826)
• Each compound has a specific ratio of

elements
• It is a ratio by mass
• Water is always 8 grams of oxygen for
every one gram of hydrogen
The Law of Multiple Proportions
• Dalton could not use his theory to determine the

elemental compositions of chemical compounds
because he had no reliable scale of atomic masses.
• Dalton’s data led to a general statement known as the

law of multiple proportions.
• Law states that when two elements form a series of

compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second
element that are present per gram of the first element
can almost always be expressed as the ratios of
integers.
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.

Daltons Atomic Theory
• Dalton stated that
elements consisted of
tiny particles called atoms
• He also called the

elements pure
substances because all
atoms of an element
were identical and that in
particular they had the
same mass.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. All matter consists of tiny particles.
Dalton, like the Greeks, called these particles “atoms”.
2. Atoms of one element can neither be subdivided nor changed into

atoms of any other element.
3. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.
4. All atoms of the same element are identical in mass, size, and
other properties.
5. Atoms of one element differ in mass and other properties from

atoms of other elements.
6. In compounds, atoms of different elements combine in simple, whole

number ratios.
Dalton’s Symbols
John Dalton
1808
Daltons’ Models of Atoms
Carbon dioxide, CO2
Water, H2O
Methane, CH4
History: On The Human Side
1834 Michael Faraday - electrolysis experiments 1919 Ernest Rutherford - announced the first artificial
suggested electrical nature of matter transmutation of atoms
1895 Wilhelm Roentgen - discovered X-rays when 1932 James Chadwick - discovered the neutron by
cathode rays strike anode alpha particle bombardment of Beryllium
1896 Henri Becquerel - discovered "uranic rays" and 1934 Frederick Joliet and Irene Joliet Curie - produced
radioactivity the first artificial radioisotope
1896 Marie (Marya Sklodowska) and Pierre Curie - 1938 Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, Lise Meitner, and
discovered that radiation is a property of the Otto Frisch - discovered nuclear fission of
atom, and not due to chemical reaction. uranium-235 by neutron bombardment
(Marie named this property radioactivity.) 1940 Edwin M McMillan and Philip Abelson -
1897 Joseph J. Thomson - discovered the electron discovered the first transuranium element,
through Crookes tube experiments neptunium, by neutron irradiation of uranium in a
1898 Marie and Piere Curie - discovered the cyclotron
radioactive elements polonium and radium 1941 Glenn T. Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, Joseph
1899 Ernest Rutherford - discovered alpha and beta W. Kennedy and Arthur C. Wahl - announced
particles discovery of plutonium from beta particle
1900 Paul Villard - discovered gamma rays emission of neptunium
1942 Enrico Fermi - produced the first nuclear fission
1903 Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy - chain-reaction
established laws of radioactive decay and 1944 Glenn T. Seaborg - proposed a new format for
transformation the periodic table to show that a new actinide series of 14
1910 Frederick Soddy - proposed the isotope concept elements would fall below and be analogous to the 14
to explain the existence of more than one atomic lanthanide-series elements.
weight of radioelements 1964 Murray Gell-Mann hypothesized that quarks are the
1911 Ernest Rutherford - used alpha particles to fundamental particles that make up all known subatomic
explore gold foil; discovered the nucleus and the particles except leptons.
proton; proposed the nuclear theory of the atom
Radioactivity (1896)
1. rays or particles produced by
unstable nuclei
a. Alpha Rays – helium nucleus
b. Beta Part. – high speed electron
c. Gamma ray – high energy x-ray
2. Discovered by Becquerel –
exposed photographic film
3. Further work by Curies
Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852 - 1908)
Radioactivity
• One of the pieces of evidence for the

fact that atoms are made of smaller
particles came from the work of
Marie Curie (1876 - 1934).
• She discovered radioactivity, the

spontaneous disintegration of some
elements into smaller pieces.
Crookes Tube
William Crookes
Crookes tube
(Cathode ray tube)
Glow
Cathode
(-)
Anode
(+)
Mask holder
The Effect of an Obstruction on
Cathode Rays
High source of shadow

voltage
high voltage
cathode
yellow-green
fluorescence
Crooke’s Tube
voltage William Crookes
source
- +
vacuum tube magnet
metal disks
Television Picture Tube
Blue beam
Green beam
Red beam Glass window
Shadow mask
Fluorescent
Fluorescent screen screen with
Electron
gun phosphor dots
Electron
beam
Deflecting
electromagnets
Red beam
Green beam
Blue beam
Shadow mask
A Cathode Ray Tube
Source of
Electrical
Potential
Stream of negative
particles (electrons)
Metal Plate
Gas-filled
glass tube Metal plate
Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 58
Background Information
Cathode Rays
• Form when high voltage is applied across
electrodes in a partially evacuated tube.
• Originate at the cathode (negative electrode)
and move to the anode (positive electrode)
• Carry energy and can do work
• Travel in straight lines in the absence of an
external field
Cathode Ray Experiment
1897 Experimentation
• Using a cathode ray tube, Thomson was
able to deflect cathode rays with an
electrical field.
• The rays bent towards the positive pole,
indicating that they are negatively
charged.
The Effect of an Electric Field on
Cathode Rays
negative
source of plate
High _
voltage
high voltage
cathode + anode
positive
plate
Conclusions
• He compared the value with the mass/ charge ratio for the
lightest charged particle.
• By comparison, Thomson estimated that the cathode ray
particle weighed 1/1000 as much as hydrogen, the lightest
atom.
• He concluded that atoms do contain subatomic particles - atoms
are divisible into smaller particles.
• This conclusion contradicted Dalton’s postulate and was not
widely accepted by fellow physicists and chemists of his day.
• Since any electrode material produces an identical ray, cathode
ray particles are present in all types of matter - a universal
negatively charged subatomic particle later named the electron
(A) The effect of an obstruction on cathode rays
High source of shadow

voltage
Cathode high voltage
Rays cathode
yellow-green
fluorescence
•Cathode ray = electron

(B) The effect of an electric field on cathode rays
•Electrons have a
negative charge negative
plate
High source of
voltage -
high voltage
source of
low voltage
cathode + anode
positive
plate
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, pages 117-118
J.J. Thomson
• He proved that atoms of
any element can be
made to emit tiny
negative particles.
• From this he concluded
that ALL atoms must
contain these negative
particles.
• He knew that atoms did
not have a net negative
charge and so there must
be balancing the negative
charge.
J.J. Thomson
William Thomson
(Lord Kelvin)
• In 1910 proposed
the Plum Pudding
model Spherical cloud of
– Negative electrons Positive charge
were embedded into
Electrons
a positively charged
spherical cloud.

Thomson Model of the Atom
• J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and knew that
electrons could be emitted from matter (1897).
• William Thomson proposed that atoms consist of small,
negative electrons embedded in a massive, positive
sphere.
• The electrons were like currants in a plum pudding.
• This is called the ‘plum pudding’ model of the atom.
-
- electrons
-
- -
-
-
-
Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) PAPER
• Learned physics in
J.J. Thomson’ lab.
• Noticed that ‘alpha’
particles were
sometime deflected
by something in the
air.
• Gold-foil experiment
Animation by Raymond Chang – All rights reserved.

Rutherford ‘Scattering’
• In 1909 Rutherford undertook a series of experiments

• He fired a (alpha) particles at a very thin sample of gold foil
• According to the Thomson model the a particles would only
be slightly deflected
• Rutherford discovered that they were deflected through large
angles and could even be reflected straight back to the source
Lead collimator
Gold foil
a particle
source
q
Rutherford’s Apparatus
Rutherford received the 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his pioneering work in nuclear chemistry.
beam of alpha particles
radioactive
substance
circular ZnS - coated

fluorescent screen
gold foil
Rutherford’s Apparatus
beam of alpha particles
radioactive
substance
fluorescent screen
circular - ZnS coated
gold foil
Geiger-Muller Counter
Hans Geiger
Speaker gives
“click” for
each particle
Window
Particle
path
Argon atoms
Geiger Counter
Ionization of fill gas
takes place along
track of radiation (-)
Speaker gives
“click” for
each particle
(+)
Metal tube
(negatively
charged)
+ e-
Window e- +
+ + e-
e-
Ionizing Free e- are attracted to

radiation (+) electrode, completing
path the circuit and generating
a current. The Geiger
Atoms or molecules Central wire electrode counter then translates
of fill gas (positively charged) the current reading into a
measure of radioactivity.
Wilbraham, Staley, Matta, Waterman, Chemistry, 2002, page 857

What he expected…
What he got…
richocheting
alpha particles
The Predicted Result:
expected
path
expected
marks on screen
Observed Result:
mark on
screen
likely alpha
particle path
Interpreting the
Observed Deflections
. . .
.
beam of . .
. . undeflected
alpha particles
particles . .
. .
. .
. deflected particle
. .
gold foil
Rutherford Scattering (cont.)
Rutherford interpreted this result by suggesting that
the a particles interacted with very small and heavy
particles
Case A Particle bounces off

of atom?
Case B
Particle goes through
atom?
Case C Particle attracts

to atom?
Case D
. Particle path is altered
as it passes through atom?
Table: hypothetical description of alpha particles
(based on properties of alpha radiation)
observation hypothesis
alpha rays don’t diffract ... alpha radiation is a stream of particles
alpha rays deflect towards a negatively ... alpha particles have a positive charge
charged plate and away from a positively
charged plate
alpha rays are deflected only slightly by ... alpha particles either have much
an electric field; a cathode ray passing lower charge or much greater mass
through the same field is deflected than electrons
strongly
Copyright © 1997-2005 by Fred Senese

Explanation of Alpha-Scattering Results
Alpha particles Nucleus

+
+
-
-
+
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
-
+
-
Plum-pudding atom Nuclear atom

Thomson’s model Rutherford’s model
Results of foil experiment if plum-
pudding had been correct.
Electrons scattered
throughout positive
charges
+ -
+
- +
+ -
+
-
- +
+ -
-

Interpreting the Observed
Deflections
deflected particle
. . .
.
beam of . .
. . undeflected
alpha particles
particles . .
. .
. .
.
. .
gold foil
Rutherford’s
Gold-Leaf
Experiment
Conclusions:
Atom is mostly empty space
Nucleus has (+) charge
Electrons float around nucleus
• Hit moth driving car – no change in car
direction
• Hit deer – car changes direction
Alpha particle moth
Gold Atom
deer
Large angle of deflection, must have hit massive object!

Oil Drop Experiment
oil droplets
Robert Millikan
. . ... ................................... .
....... ... . . ...... ... .
...... ..........................................
Charged plate
.. ....... ..... ..... .. .....

............................... ... .. . .
(1909)
.. ...................... .
.
.
..................... .. .
.......... .. .. . .
................... ... .
...... . ........ ........... ......................
........................................
..... ... ..
.. .
.......... .. .
......
. .... .. . ..
..... ..... . . ........ ..... ............................................. .. oil atomizer
.
............... . ................................................ .
.. . .... .
. . . . . . ...... .. . .... .
.. .......... .. . . . .. . . . .
..
..
.
+ . .
.
Small hole Telescope
- oil droplet
under observation
Charged plate
BalancingMass was and

electrical calculated using charge
gravitational to massthe
forces allowed ratio x 10-28tog).
(9.1093charge
electron be determined.
Evidence for Particles
In 1886, Goldstein, using equipment similar to cathode ray tube,
discovered particles with charge equal and opposite to that of
electron, but much larger mass.
Rutherford later (1911) found these particles to be identical to

hydrogen atoms minus one electron
- named these particles protons
Chadwick (1932) discovered particles with similar mass to proton

but zero charge.
- discovered neutrons
Bohr’s Model
Nucleus
Electron
Orbit
Energy Levels
Bohr Model of Atom
Increasing energy
n=3 of orbits
e- n=2 e-
n=1 e-
e-
e-
e- e- e-
e-
e-
e-
A photon is emitted
with energy E = hf
The Bohr model of the atom, like many ideas in

the history of science, was at first prompted by
and later partially disproved by experimentation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chemistry
An unsatisfactory model
for the hydrogen atom
According to classical physics, light

should be emitted as the electron
circles the nucleus. A loss of energy
would cause the electron to be drawn
closer to the nucleus and eventually
spiral into it.
Hill, Petrucci, General Chemistry An Integrated Approach 2nd Edition, page 294
Quantum Mechanical Model
Niels Bohr &
Albert Einstein
Modern atomic theory describes the

electronic structure of the atom as the
probability of finding electrons within certain
regions of space (orbitals).
Modern View
• The atom is mostly empty space

• Two regions
– Nucleus
• protons and neutrons
– Electron cloud
• region where you might find an electron
The Experiment
• To test this he designed and experiment directing ‘alpha’
particles toward a thin metal foil.
– The foil was coated with a substance that produced flashes
when it was hit by an alpha particle.
Some a particles Most particles

are scattered pass straight
through foil
Source of Beam of
a particles a particles
Screen to detect Thin metal foil

scattered a particles

Appling the Results to the Models
Alpha particles Nucleus

+
+
-
-
+
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
-
+
-
Plum-pudding atom Nuclear atom

Models of the Atom
"In science, a wrong theory can be valuable and better than no theory at all."
- Sir William L. Bragg
e
e + +
e -
e
+ + -
+e e
+ e - +
- -
e
+ e + e
Dalton’s model
Greek model Thomson’s plum-pudding Rutherford’s model
(400
(1803)
B.C.) model (1897) (1909)
Bohr’s model Charge-cloud model

(1913) (present)
Models of the Atom
e
e + e + -
+
e
+ -
+e e
+e - +
- -
e
+ e + e
Dalton’s model
Greek model Thomson’s plum-pudding Rutherford’s model Bohr’s model Charge-cloud model
(1803)
(400 B.C.) model (1897) (1909) (1913) (present)
1803 John Dalton 1897 J.J. Thomson, a British 1911 New Zealander 1926 Erwin Schrödinger
scientist, discovers the electron, Ernest Rutherford states 1913 In Niels Bohr's develops mathematical
pictures atoms as model, the electrons move
tiny, indestructible leading to his "plum-pudding" that an atom has a dense, equations to describe the
model. He pictures electrons positively charged nucleus. in spherical orbits at fixed motion of electrons in
particles, with no distances from the nucleus.
internal structure. embedded in a sphere of Electrons move randomly in atoms. His work leads to
positive electric charge. the space around the nucleus. the electron cloud model.
1800 1805 ..................... 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945
1924 Frenchman Louis 1932 James

1904 Hantaro Nagaoka, a de Broglie proposes that Chadwick, a British
Japanese physicist, suggests moving particles like electrons physicist, confirms the
that an atom has a central have some properties of waves. existence of neutrons,
nucleus. Electrons move in Within a few years evidence is which have no charge.
orbits like the rings around Saturn. collected to support his idea. Atomic nuclei contain
neutrons and positively
charged protons.
Dalton (1803)
Thomson (1904)
(positive and negative charges)
+
+ Rutherford (1911)
+ (the nucleus)
+
+ +
.
..
. .
.. .
. .
.
.
.
..
Bohr (1913) ..
.
.
.. .. ...
.. .
. . ..
(energy levels - orbits) . . . .
. .. .
.. . .
.. . .
. .
. ... . . .
.
.. . ...
.. . . ..
. .
. . .. . .
.. . . . . .
. .. . .
. ... . . .
. .. . . .
. . .. . . .
. . . . .
. . .
. .
.. .
.
.. . .
Schrödinger (1926) ..
.
.. .
(electron cloud model – orbitals) . . .. .
.
From the time of Dalton to Schrödinger, our model

of the atom has undergone many modifications.
Ralph A. Burns, Fundamentals of Chemistry 1999, page 137
Bohr Model
Neils Bohr
Planetary
model
After Rutherford’s discovery, Bohr

proposed that electrons travel in definite
orbits around the nucleus.
• Bohr’s contributions to the understanding of
atomic structure:
1. Electrons can occupy only certain regions of space,
called orbits.
2. Orbits closer to the nucleus are more stable —
they are at lower energy levels.
3. Electrons can move from one orbit to another by
absorbing or emitting energy, giving rise to
characteristic spectra.
• Bohr’s model could not explain

the spectra of atoms heavier
than hydrogen.
Particles in the Atom
Electrons
(-) charge no mass located outside the nucleus
Protons
(+) charge 1 amu located inside the nucleus
Neutrons
no charge 1 amu located inside the nucleus
Discovery of the Neutron
9 4 12 1
4 Be +
2 He 6 C +
0 n
James Chadwick bombarded beryllium-9 with alpha particles,

carbon-12 atoms were formed, and neutrons were emitted.
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter 3rd Edition, page 764 *Walter Boethe
Subatomic particles
Relative Actual
Name Symbol Charge mass mass (g)
Electron e- -1 1/1840 9.11 x 10-28
Proton p+ +1 1 1.67 x 10-24
Neutron no 0 1 1.67 x 10-24

Subatomic Particles
ATOM
ATOM
NUCLEUS
NUCLEUS ELECTRONS
ELECTRONS
PROTONS
PROTONS NEUTRONS
NEUTRONS NEGATIVE CHARGE
Negative Charge
POSITIVE
Positive NEUTRAL
Neutral
CHARGE
Charge CHARGE
Charge
QUARKS equal in a
Most Number
Atomic of the atom’s mass.
neutral atom
equals the # of...Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem
Symbols
Contain the symbol of the element, the mass

number and the atomic number
# protons Mass
X
+ # neutrons number
mass number
# protons Atomic
number
Symbols
• Find the
– number of protons = 9 +
– number of neutrons = 10
19
– number of electrons = 9
– Atomic number = 9 9 F
– Mass number = 19
Symbols
Find the
– number of protons = 35
80
– Atomic number = 35
35 Br
http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/bromine.gif
Symbols
Find the
– number of electrons = 11 23
11 Na
Sodium atom
Symbols
Find the
– number of neutrons = 12 1+
23
– Atomic number = 11 11 Na
Sodium ion
Symbols
If an element has an atomic number of
23 and a mass number of 51 what is
the
– Complete symbol 51
23 V
Symbols
If an element has 60 protons and 84
neutrons what is the
– Complete symbol
144
60 Nd
Symbols
If a neutral atom of an element has 78
electrons and 117 neutrons what is the
– Complete symbol
195
78 Pt
Masses of Atoms
 Mass Number
 Isotopes
 Ions
 Relative Atomic Mass
 Average Atomic Mass
Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

Atomic Mass p+ n0 e–
Ca 20 40 20 20 20
Ar 18 40 18 22 18
Br 35 80 35 45 35
20 18 35
Ca Ar Br
40.08 39.948 79.904
Bohr - Rutherford diagrams
• Putting all this together, we get B-R diagrams
• To draw them you must know the # of protons, neutrons,
and electrons (2,8,8,2 filling order)
• Draw protons (p+), (n0) in circle (i.e. “nucleus”)
• Draw electrons around in shells
He Li
Li shorthand
3 p+
2 p+ 3 p+ 4 n0 2e– 1e–
2 n0 4 n0
Draw Be, B, Al and shorthand diagrams for O, Na

Be B
Al
4 p+ 5 p+ 13 p+
5 n° 6 n° 14 n°
O Na
8 p+ 2e– 6e– 11 p+ 2e– 8e– 1e–

8 n° 12 n°
Mass Number
• mass # = protons + neutrons
• always a whole number Neutron
+ +
+
• NOT on the Nucleus
e-
Electrons
+
+ +
Periodic Table! Proton
e- e- Nucleus
e-
e-
Carbon-12
Neutrons 6
e- Protons 6
Electrons 6
Isotopes
• Atoms of the same element with different
mass numbers.
• Nuclear symbol:
Mass # 12
Atomic # 6 C
• Hyphen notation: carbon-12
Isotopes
Neutron
+ +
+
Electrons
Nucleus
+
+ + Proton
Nucleus
Proton
Nucleus +
+ Neutron
Carbon-12
+
Neutrons 6 + +
Electrons
Protons 6
Electrons 6 +
Carbon-14
Neutrons 8
Protons 6 Nucleus
Electrons 6
6Li 7Li
3 p+ 2e– 1e–
3 p+ 2e– 1e–
3 n0 4 n0
Neutron Neutron
Electrons Electrons
Nucleus + Nucleus
+
+ + Proton + + Proton
Nucleus Nucleus
Lithium-6 Lithium-7
Neutrons 3 Neutrons 4
Protons 3 Protons 3
Electrons 3 Electrons 3
17
Cl
Isotopes 37
• Chlorine-37
– atomic #: 17
– mass #: 37
– # of protons: 17 37
– # of electrons: 17
– # of neutrons: 20
17 Cl
Relative Atomic Mass
• 12C atom = 1.992 × 10-23 g
• atomic mass unit (amu)
• 1 amu = 1/12 the mass of a 12C atom Neutron
+ +
• 1 p = 1.007276 amu Nucleus
Electrons
+
+
+
1 n = 1.008665 amu + Proton
1 e- = 0.0005486 amu
Nucleus
Carbon-12
Neutrons 6
Protons 6
Electrons 6
Average Atomic Mass
• weighted average of all isotopes

• on the Periodic Table
• round to 2 decimal places
Avg. (mass)(%) + (mass)(%)

Atomic =
Mass 100

Average Atomic Mass
• EX: Calculate the avg. atomic mass of oxygen if its

abundance in nature is 99.76% 16O, 0.04% 17O, and
0.20% 18O.
Avg.
(16)(99.76) + (17)(0.04) + (18)(0.20) 16.00
Atomic = =
Mass 100 amu

Average Atomic Mass
• EX: Find chlorine’s average atomic mass

if approximately 8 of every 10 atoms are
chlorine-35 and 2 are chlorine-37.
Avg. (35)(8) + (37)(2)

Atomic = = 35.40 amu
Mass 10

100 17
Mass spectrum of chlorine. Elemental chlorine (Cl2) contains
only two isotopes: 34.97 amu (75.53%) and 36.97 (24.47%)
Cl
90 35.4594
80 Cl-35
70
AAM = (34.97 amu)(0.7553) + (36.97 amu)(0.2447)
60 AAM = (26.412841 amu) + (9.046559 amu)
Abundance
AAM = 35.4594 amu
50
40
30 Cl-37
20
10
0
34 35 36 37
Mass
Mass Spectrophotometer
magnetic field
heaviest
ions
stream
of ions of
different
masses lightest
ions
electron gas
beam
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter 3rd Edition, page 138
Weighing atoms
gas sample ions accelerate magnetic field
enters here towards charged deflects lightest ions
. slit most
filament current
ionizes the gas
The first mass spectrograph was

built in 1919 by F. W. Aston, who
received the 1922 Nobel Prize for
this accomplishment
ions separated by mass

expose film
• mass spectrometry is used to experimentally determine isotopic masses

and abundances
• interpreting mass spectra
• average atomic weights
- computed from isotopic masses and abundances
- significant figures of tabulated atomic weights gives some idea
of natural variation in isotopic abundances
Copyright © 1997-2005 by Fred Senese
Mass Spectrometry
198 200 202
Photographic plate
196 199 201 204
- Mass spectrum of mercury vapor

+
Stream of positive ions

Hill, Petrucci, General Chemistry An Integrated Approach 1999, page 320
Mass Spectrum for Mercury
(The photographic record has been converted to a scale of relative number of atoms)
The percent natural abundances

for mercury isotopes are: 198 200 202
Hg-196 0.146%
Hg-198 10.02%
30 Hg-199 16.84% 196 199 201 204
Hg-200 23.13%
Hg-201 13.22%
Hg-202 29.80% Mass spectrum of mercury vapor
25
Relative number of atoms
Hg-204 6.85%
20
15
10
196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204
Mass number
80
Hg
200.59
The percent natural abundances

for mercury isotopes are:
A Hg-196 0.146%
B Hg-198 10.02%
C Hg-199 16.84%
D Hg-200 23.13%
E Hg-201 13.22%
F Hg-202 29.80%
G Hg-204 6.85%
(% "A")(mass "A") + (% "B")(mass "B") + (% "C")(mass "C") + (% "D")(mass "D") + (% "E")(mass "E") + (% F)(mass F) + (% G)(mass G) = AAM
(0.00146)(196) + (0.1002)(198) + (0.1684)(199) + (0.2313)(200) + (0.1322)(201) + (0.2980)(202) + (0.0685)(204) = x
0.28616 + 19.8396 + 33.5116 + 46.2600 + 26.5722 + 60.1960 + 13.974 = x
x = 200.63956 amu
92
U
Separation of Isotopes 238
Natural uranium, atomic weight = 238.029 g/mol

Density is 19 g/cm3. Melting point 1000oC.
Two main isotopes:

238
92 U 99.3% (238 amu) x (0.993) + (235 amu) x (0.007)
235 236.334 amu + 1.645 amu

92 U 0.7% 237.979 amu
Because isotopes are chemically identical

(same electronic structure), they cannot be
separated by chemistry.
So Physics separates them by diffusion or

centrifuge (mass spectrograph is too slow)…
17
Cl
35.453
• Assume you have only two atoms of chlorine.

• One atom has a mass of 35 amu (Cl-35)
• The other atom has a mass of 36 amu (Cl-36)
• What is the average mass of these two isotopes?

35.5 amu
• Looking at the average atomic mass printed on the

periodic table...approximately what percentage is Cl-35
and Cl-36?
55% Cl-35 and 45% Cl-36 is a good approximation
17
Cl
35.453
Using our estimated % abundance data

55% Cl-35 and 45% Cl-36
calculate an average atomic mass for chlorine.
Average Atomic Mass = (% abundance of isotope "A")(mass "A") + (% "B")(mass "B")

AAM = (% abundance of isotope Cl-35)(mass Cl-35) + (% abundance of Cl-36)(mass Cl-36)
AAM = (0.55)(35 amu) + (0.45)(36 amu)
AAM = (19.25 amu) + (16.2 amu)
AAM = 35.45 amu
Isotopes
Dalton was wrong.

Atoms of the same element can have
different numbers of neutrons
different mass numbers
called isotopes
C-12 vs. C-14
California WEB
Naming Isotopes
• Put the mass number after the name of

the element
• carbon- 12
• carbon -14
• uranium-235
California WEB
Using a periodic table and what you know about atomic
number, mass, isotopes, and electrons, fill in the chart:
Element Symbol Atomic Atomic # of # of # of charge

Number Mass protons neutron electron
8 8 8
Potassium 39 +1
Br 45 -1
30 35 30
Atomic Number = Number of Protons

Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons = Atomic Mass
Atom (no charge) : Protons = Electrons
Ion (cation) : Protons > Electrons Ion (anion) : Electrons > Protons
Using a periodic table and what you know about atomic
number, mass, isotopes, and electrons, fill in the chart:
ANSWER KEY
Element Symbol Atomic Atomic # of # of # of charge

Number Mass protons neutron electron
Oxygen O 8 16 8 8 8 0
Potassium K 19 39 19 20 18 +1
Bromine Br 35 80 35 45 36 -1
Zinc Zn 30 35 30 65 30 0
Atomic Number = Number of Protons

Number of Protons + Number of Neutrons = Atomic Mass
Atom (no charge) : Protons = Electrons
Ion (cation) : Protons > Electrons Ion (anion) : Electrons > Protons
Atomic Mass
• How heavy is an atom of oxygen?

• There are different kinds of oxygen atoms.
• More concerned with average atomic mass.
• Based on abundance of each element in nature.
• Don’t use grams because the numbers would be
too small
Measuring Atomic Mass
• Unit is the Atomic Mass Unit (amu)

• One twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
• Each isotope has its own atomic mass we need
the average from percent abundance.
(1 amu) (1 amu) (1 amu) (1 amu)
carbon atom
(1 amu) (1 amu) (1 amu) (1 amu)
(12 amu)
(1 amu) (1 amu) (1 amu) (1 amu)

Mass spectrums reflect the abundance of
naturally occurring isotopes.
Natural Abundance of Common Elements
Hydrogen 1H = 99.985% 2H = 0.015%
Carbon 12C = 98.90% 13C = 1.10%
Nitrogen 14N = 99.63% 15N = 0.37%
Oxygen 16O = 99.762% 17O = 0.038% 18O = 0.200%
Sulfur 32S = 95.02% 33S = 0.75%

34S = 4.21% 36S = 0.02%
Chlorine 35Cl = 75.77% 37Cl = 24.23%
Bromine 79Br = 50.69% 81Br = 49.31%

For example….Methane
For carbon 1 in approximately 90
atoms are carbon-13
The rest are carbon-12 the isotope that
is 98.9% abundant.
So, for approximately 90 methane
molecules…1 carbon is carbon-13
C-13
Where’s
Where’s Waldo?
Waldo?
Calculating averages
• You have five rocks, four with a mass of 50 g,
and one with a mass of 60 g. What is the average
mass of the rocks?
• Total mass = (4 x 50) + (1 x 60) = 260 g
• Average mass = (4 x 50) + (1 x 60) = 260 g

5 5
• Average mass = 4 x 50 + 1 x 60 = 260 g

5 5 5
California WEB
Calculating averages
• Average mass = 4 x 50 + 1 x 60 = 260 g
5 5 5
• Average mass = .8 x 50 + .2 x 60
• 80% of the rocks were 50 grams
• 20% of the rocks were 60 grams
• Average = % as decimal x mass +
% as decimal x mass +
% as decimal x mass +
California WEB
Isotopes
• Because of the existence of isotopes, the mass of a
collection of atoms has an average value.
• Average mass = ATOMIC WEIGHT
• Boron is 20% B-10 and 80% B-11.

That is, B-11 is 80 percent abundant on earth.
• For boron atomic weight

= 0.20 (10 amu) + 0.80 (11 amu) = 10.8 amu
Periodic Table
• Dmitri Mendeleev developed the
modern periodic table.
• Argued that element properties are
periodic functions of their atomic
weights.
• We now know that element
properties are periodic
functions of their
ATOMIC NUMBERS.
Atomic Mass
Magnesium has three isotopes. Percent

78.99% magnesium 24 with Isotope Mass
a mass of 23.9850 amu, Abundance
10.00% magnesium 25 with
a mass of 24.9858 amu, and Mg-24 78.99 23.9850 18.94575
the rest magnesium 26 with
a mass of 25.9826 amu.
What is the atomic mass of Mg-25 10.00 24.9585 2.49585
magnesium?
Mg-26 11.01 25.9826 2.86068
If not told otherwise,

the mass of the isotope is 24.304 amu
the mass number in amu.
California WEB
Atomic Mass
Calculate the atomic mass of copper if copper has two isotopes.
69.1% has a mass of 62.93 amu and the rest has a mass of
64.93 amu. Isotope
Percent
Mass
Abundance
Cu-63 69.1 62.93 43.48463
Cu-65 30.9 64.93 20.06337
63.548
Average atomic mass (AAM)  (% " A" )(mass " A" )  (% " B" )(mass " B" )  ...
A.A.M.  (0.691)(62.93 amu)  (0.309)(64.93 amu) 29

A.A.M.  43.48463 amu  20.06337 amu
A.A.M.  63.548 amu for Copper Cu
63.548
Mass
Protons Neutrons Electrons
number
Cu-65 A B 29 C A. B. C.
Argon D E F 40 D. E. F.
Ba2+ 56 G H I G. H. I.
Given the average atomic mass of an element is 118.21 amu and it has
three isotopes (“A”, “B”, and “C”):
isotope “A” has a mass of 117.93 amu and is 87.14% abundant
isotope “B” has a mass of 120.12 amu and is 12.36% abundant
Find the mass of isotope “C”.

Show work for credit.
Extra Credit: What is a cation?

Mass
Protons Neutrons Electrons
number
Cu-65 A = 29 B = 36 29 C = 65
Argon D = 18 E = 22 F = 18 40
Ba2+ 56 G = 81 H = 54 I = 137

119.7932 amu
Extra Credit: What is a cation?

A positively charged atom. An atom that has lost a(n) electron(s).

Average Atomic Mass  (% " A" )(mass " A" )  (% " B" )(mass " B" )  (% " C" )(mass " C" )
118.21 amu  (0.8714)(117.93 amu)  (0.1236)(120.12 amu)  (0.005)(X amu)
118.21 amu  102.764202 amu  14.846832 amu  (0.005)(X amu)
0.598966  0.005 X amu
0.598966  0.005 X amu

0.005 0.005
X  119.7932 amu
I. Waves and Particles
• De Broglie’s Hypothesis
– Particles have wave characteristics
– Waves have particle characteristics
– λ = h/mn
• Wave-Particle Duality of Nature
• Waves properties are significant at small
momentum
Electrons as Waves
• Louis de Broglie (1924)
Louis de Broglie
~1924
– Applied wave-particle theory to electrons

– electrons exhibit wave properties
QUANTIZED WAVELENGTHS
Fundamental mode Second Harmonic or First Overtone Standing Wave
200 200 200
150 150 150
100 100 100
50 50 50
0 0 0
- 50 - 50 - 50
-100 -100 -100
-150 -150 -150
-200 -200 -200

0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Adapted from work by Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

Electrons as Waves
QUANTIZED WAVELENGTHS
L
n=4
n=1 L = 1 (l)
2 n=5
1 half-wavelength
n=2 L = 2 (l) n=6

2
2 half-wavelengths
Forbidden
n = 3.3
n=3 L = 3 (l)
2
3 half-wavelengths
Electrons as Waves
Evidence: DIFFRACTION PATTERNS
VISIBLE LIGHT ELECTRONS

Davis, Frey, Sarquis, Sarquis, Modern Chemistry 2006, page 105 Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem
Dual Nature of Light
Waves can bend …and fan out

around small obstacles… from pinholes. Particles effuse from pinholes
Three ways to tell a wave from a particle…
wave behavior particle behavior
waves interfere particle collide
waves diffract particles effuse
waves are delocalized particles are localized

Quantum Mechanics
• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Werner Heisenberg
~1926
– Impossible to know both the velocity and

position of an electron at the same time
g Microscope
Electron
Quantum Mechanics
Erwin Schrödinger
• Schrödinger Wave Equation (1926) ~1926
– finite # of solutions  quantized energy levels

– defines probability of finding an electron
Ψ 1s  π a0

1 Z 3/2 σ
e
Quantum Mechanics
• Orbital (“electron cloud”)
– Region in space where there is 90%
probability of finding an electron
90% probability of Electron Probability vs. Distance
40
finding the electron
Electron Probability (%)

30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Distance from the Nucleus (pm)
Orbital
Quantum Numbers
• Four Quantum Numbers:
– Specify the “address” of each electron
in an atom
UPPER LEVEL

Quantum Numbers
Principal Quantum Number ( n )
Angular Momentum Quantum # ( l )
Magnetic Quantum Number ( ml )
Spin Quantum Number ( ms )

Relative Sizes 1s and 2s
1s 2s
Quantum Numbers
1. Principal Quantum Number ( n )
– Energy level 1s
– Size of the orbital

2s
– n2 = # of orbitals in
the energy level
3s
1s orbital imagined as “onion”
Concentric spherical shells

Shapes of s, p, and d-Orbitals
s orbital
p orbitals
d orbitals
Atomic Orbitals
s, p, and d-orbitals
A B C
s orbitals: p orbitals: d orbitals:
Hold 2 electrons Each of 3 pairs of Each of 5 sets of
(outer orbitals of lobes holds 2 electrons lobes holds 2 electrons
Groups 1 and 2) = 6 electrons = 10 electrons
(outer orbitals of (found in elements
Groups 13 to 18) with atomic no. of 21
and higher)
Kelter, Carr, Scott, , Chemistry: A World of Choices 1999, page 82
Y21s Y22s Y23s
r r r r r r
Distance from nucleus
(a) 1s (b) 2s (c) 3s

Quantum Numbers
y y y
z z z
x x x
px pz py
p-Orbitals
px pz py

y y y y
z z z z
x x x x
s px pz py
2s 2p (x, y, z) carbon
Mark Wirtz, Edward Ehrat, David L. Cedeno*

Quantum Numbers
2. Angular Momentum Quantum # ( l )
– Energy sublevel
– Shape of the orbital
s p d
f
The azimuthal quantum number
Second quantum number l
is called the azimuthal quantum number
– Value of l describes the shape of the region of space

occupied by the electron
– Allowed values of l depend on the value of n and can

range from 0 to n – 1
– All wave functions that have the same value of both

n and l form a subshell
– Regions of space occupied by electrons in the same

subshell have the same shape but are oriented
differently in space

A Cross Section of an Atom
n0
Rings of Saturn p+
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d
The first ionization energy level has only one sublevel (1s).
The second energy level has two sublevels (2s and 2p).
The third energy level has three sublevels (3s, 3p, and 3d).
Although the diagram suggests that electrons travel in circular orbits,

this is a simplification and is not actually the case.
Corwin, Introductory Chemistry 2005, page 124
Quantum Numbers
• Orbitals combine to form a spherical shape.
2s
2px
2py 2pz

Quantum Numbers
Principal n=1 n=2 n=3
level
Sublevel s s p s p d
Orbital px py pz px py pz dxy dxz dyz dz2 dx2- y2
• n = # of sublevels per level

• n2 = # of orbitals per level
• Sublevel sets: 1 s, 3 p, 5 d, 7 f
Maximum Capacities of Subshells
and Principal Shells
n 1 2 3 4 ...n
l 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
Subshell
designation s s p s p d s p d f
Orbitals in
subshell 1 1 3 1 3 5 1 3 5 7
Subshell
capacity 2 2 6 2 6 10 2 6 10 14
Principal shell
capacity 2 8 18 32 ...2n2
Hill, Petrucci, General Chemistry An Integrated Approach 1999, page 320

Quantum Numbers
3. Magnetic Quantum Number ( ml )
– Orientation of orbital
– Specifies the exact orbital within each sublevel

The magnetic quantum number
Third quantum is ml, the magnetic quantum number
– Value of ml describes the orientation of the region
in space occupied by the electrons with respect to
an applied magnetic field
– Allowed values of ml depend on the value of l
– ml can range from –l to l in integral steps
ml = l, -l + l, . . . 0 . . ., l – 1, l
– Each wave function with an allowed combination of
n, l, and ml values describes an atomic orbital, a
particular spatial distribution for an electron
– For a given set of quantum numbers, each principal
shell contains a fixed number of subshells, and
each subshell contains a fixed number of orbitals
d-orbitals

Principal Energy Levels 1 and 2
Quantum Numbers
4. Spin Quantum Number ( ms )
– Electron spin  +½ or -½
– An orbital can hold 2 electrons that spin in
opposite directions.

Electron Spin: The Fourth Quantum Number
• When an electrically charged object spins, it produces a magnetic

moment parallel to the axis of rotation and behaves like a magnet.
• A magnetic moment is called electron spin.
• An electron has two possible orientations in an external magnetic

field, which are described by a fourth quantum number ms.
• For any electron, ms can have only two possible values, designated
+ (up) and – (down), indicating that the two orientations are opposite
and the subscript s is for spin.
• An electron behaves like a magnet that has one of two possible

orientations, aligned either with the magnetic field or against it.

Quantum Numbers
• Pauli Exclusion Principle Wolfgang Pauli
– No two electrons in an atom can have the

same 4 quantum numbers.
– Each electron has a unique “address”:
1. Principal #  energy level
2. Ang. Mom. #  sublevel (s,p,d,f)
3. Magnetic #  orbital
4. Spin #  electron

Allowed Sets of Quantum Numbers for Electrons in Atoms
Level n 1 2 3
Sublevel l 0 0 1 0 1 2
Orbital ml 0 0 1 0 -1 0 1 0 -1 2 1 0 -1 -2
= +1/2
Spin ms
= -1/2
Feeling overwhelmed?
Read Section
5.10 - 5.11!
"Teacher, may I be excused? My brain is full."

Electron Orbitals:
Electron
orbitals
Equivalent
Electron
shells
(a) 1s orbital (b) 2s and 2p orbitals c) Neon Ne-10: 1s, 2s and 2p
1999, Addison, Wesley, Longman, Inc.

What sort of covalent bonds
are seen here?
H H H H O O O O
(a) H2 (b) O2
H
O H O H H O H H C H
H H
H H
(c) H2O (d) CH4

THIS SLIDE IS ANIMATED
IN FILLING ORDER 2.PPT
H = 1s1
1s
He = 1s2
1s
Li = 1s2 2s1
1s 2s
Be = 1s2 2s2
1s 2s
C = 1s2 2s2 2p2

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz
S = 1s2 2s2 2p63s2 3p4

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s 3px 3py 3pz
H = 1s1
1s
e-
+1
He = 1s2
1s
e-
+2
e- Coulombic attraction holds valence electrons to atom.
Be = 1s2 2s2
1s 2s
e-
e-
+4 Coulombic attraction holds valence electrons to atom.
e- e-
Valence electrons are shielded by the kernel electrons.
Therefore the valence electrons are not held as tightly in Be than in He.
Fe = 1s1 2s22p63s23p64s23d6 26 electrons.
Iron has ___
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s 3px 3py 3pz 4s 3d 3d 3d 3d 3d
6s 6p 5d 4f
32
5s 5p 4d
e- 18
e-
e- e-
e- 4s 4p 3d
e- e-
e-
e- 18
e- e- e- e-
e-
+26 Arbitrary 3s 3p
e-
e- e-
e- Energy Scale 8
e- e- e- e-
e-
e- e- 2s 2p
e-
8
1s
2
NUCLEUS
Electron Configurations
Orbital Filling
Electron
Element 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s Configuration
H 1s1
He 1s2
NOT CORRECT
Li 1s22s1
Violates Hund’s
Rule 1s22s22p2
C
N 1s22s22p3
O 1s22s22p4
F 1s22s22p5
Ne 1s22s22p6
Na 1s22s22p63s1
Orbital Filling
Electron
Element 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s Configuration
H 1s1
He 1s2
Li 1s22s1
C 1s22s22p2
N 1s22s22p3
O 1s22s22p4
F 1s22s22p5
Ne 1s22s22p6
Na 1s22s22p63s1
Filling Rules for Electron Orbitals
Aufbau Principle: Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest
energy orbitals available until all the electrons of the atom
have been accounted for.
Pauli Exclusion Principle: An orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.

To occupy the same orbital, two electrons must spin in opposite
directions.
Hund’s Rule: Electrons occupy equal-energy orbitals so that a maximum

number of unpaired electrons results.
*Aufbau is German for “building up”

have been accounted for. 6s 6p 5d 4f
32
5s 5p 4d
18
Pauli Exclusion Principle: An orbital
4s
can
4p
hold
3d
a maximum of two electrons.
18
directions. Arbitrary North South
3s 3p
Energy Scale 8
-
Hund’s Rule: Electrons occupy equal-energy
2s 2p
-
orbitals so that a maximum
number of unpaired electrons results. 8
1s
2
*Aufbau is German for “building up” S N
NUCLEUS
Spin Quantum Number, ms
North South
- N
S
-
Electron aligned with Electron aligned against

magnetic field, magnetic field,
ms = +behaves
The electron ½ ms =its
as if it were spinning about an axis through -½center.
This electron spin generates a magnetic field, the direction of which depends
on the direction of the spin.
Brown, LeMay, Bursten, Chemistry The Central Science, 2000, page 208
Energy Level Diagram of a Many-Electron Atom
6s 6p 5d 4f
32
5s 5p 4d
18
4s 4p 3d
18
Arbitrary
Energy Scale
3s 3p
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
O’Connor, Davis, MacNab, McClellan, CHEMISTRY Experiments and Principles 1982, page 177
Maximum Number of Electrons Maximum Number of Electrons In Each Sublevel
In Each Sublevel
Maximum Number
Sublevel Number of Orbitals of Electrons
s 1 2
p 3 6
d 5 10
f 7 14
LeMay Jr, Beall, Robblee, Brower, Chemistry Connections to Our Changing World , 1996, page 146
Quantum Numbers
n shell 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
l subshell 0, 1, 2, ... n - 1
ml orbital - l ... 0 ... +l
ms electron spin +1/2 and - 1/2
Order in which subshells are filled
with electrons
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 6 2 10
7s 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d …
4f
Sublevels
4d
n=4
4p
3d
4s
Energy
6d
5f
7s
6p 7s
6d
5f n=3 3p
5d 6p
4f
6s 5d
5p 6s 4f
4d 5p
4p
5s
5s
4d 3s
3d 4p
4s
Energy
3d
3p 4s
3p
3s
3s
2p
2p
2s 2p n=2
2s
2s
1s
1s
n=1 1s
4f
Sublevels
4d
s p d f n=4
s p d
4p
s p
s 3d
4s
Energy
n=3 3p
3s
1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d10…
2p
n=2
2s
n=1 1s
have been accounted for.
Pauli Exclusion Principle: An orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.

directions.
Hund’s Rule: Electrons occupy equal-energy orbitals so that a maximum

number of unpaired electrons results.
*Aufbau is German for “building up”

Energy Level Diagram of a Many-Electron Atom
6s 6p 5d 4f
32
5s 5p 4d
18
4s 4p 3d
18
Arbitrary
Energy Scale
3s 3p
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
O’Connor, Davis, MacNab, McClellan, CHEMISTRY Experiments and Principles 1982, page 177
Electron
capacities

32
32
18
18
8
8
2

Energy Level Diagram
6s 6p 5d 4f
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
Arbitrary Energy Scale
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
Electron Configuration
NUCLEUS
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La
CLICK ON ELEMENT TO FILL IN CHARTS
6s 6p 5d 4f Hydrogen
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
H = 1s1
6s 6p 5d 4f Helium
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
He = 1s2
6s 6p 5d 4f Lithium
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
Li = 1s22s1
6s 6p 5d 4f Carbon
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
C = 1s22s22p2
6s 6p 5d 4f Nitrogen
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
3s 3p
N
Hund’s Rule “maximum

number of unpaired
orbitals”.
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
N = 1s22s22p3
6s 6p 5d 4f Fluorine
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
F = 1s22s22p5
6s 6p 5d 4f Aluminum
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
Al = 1s22s22p63s23p1
6s 6p 5d 4f Argon
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
Ar = 1s22s22p63s23p6
6s 6p 5d 4f Iron
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
Fe = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
6s 6p 5d 4f Lanthanum
5s 5p 4d
Bohr Model
4s 4p 3d
3s 3p
N
2s 2p
1s
NUCLEUS
La = 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d10
H He Li C N Al Ar F Fe La 4s23d104p65s24d105p66s25d1
Shorthand Configuration
A neon's electron configuration (1s22s22p6)
B third energy level
[Ne] 3s1
C one electron in the s orbital
D orbital shape
Na = [1s22s22p6] 3s1 electron configuration

Shorthand Configuration
Element symbol Electron configuration
Ca [Ar] 4s2
V [Ar] 4s2 3d3
F [He] 2s2 2p5
Ag [Kr] 5s2 4d9
I [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p5
Xe [Kr] 5s2 4d10 5p6
Fe 22p64s
[He] 2s[Ar] 3s223d
3p664s23d6
Sg [Rn] 7s2 5f14 6d4
General Rules
• Pauli Exclusion Principle Wolfgang Pauli
– Each orbital can hold TWO electrons with

opposite spins.

General Rules
6d
Aufbau Principle 7s
5f
6p 7s
6d
5f
5d 6p
– Electrons fill the

4f
6s 5d
5p 6s 4f
4d
lowest energy 4p
5s
5s
5p
4d
orbitals first. 4s
3d 4p
3d
3p 4s
Energy
– “Lazy Tenant 3s
3s
3p
Rule” 2p
2s 2p
2s
1s
1s

General Rules
• Hund’s Rule
– Within a sublevel, place one electron
per orbital before pairing them.
– “Empty Bus Seat Rule”
WRONG RIGHT
8
O
Notation 15.9994
• Orbital Diagram
O
8e- 1s 2s 2p
• Electron Configuration
2 2
1s 2s 2p4
16
S
Notation 32.066
• Longhand Configuration
S 16e- 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Core Electrons Valence Electrons
• Shorthand Configuration
S 16e- 2
[Ne] 3s 3p4
Periodic Patterns
s
1 1s p 1s
2 2s 2p
3 3s d (n-1) 3p
4 4s 3d 4p
5 5s 4d 5p
6 6s 5d 6p
7 7s 6d 7p
6 4f
f (n-2) 7 5f
Periodic Patterns
• Period #
– energy level (subtract for d & f)
• A/B Group #
– total # of valence e-
• Column within sublevel block

– # of e- in sublevel
Periodic Patterns
• Example - Hydrogen
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1st column
1s 1 of s-block
1st Period s-block

Periodic Patterns
• Shorthand Configuration
– Core electrons:
• Go up one row and over to the Noble Gas.
– Valence electrons:
• On the next row, fill in the # of e- in each sublevel.
1
2
3
4
5

32
Ge
Periodic Patterns 72.61
• Example - Germanium
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
[Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 2

Stability
• Full energy level
• Full sublevel (s, p, d, f)
• Half-full sublevel
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

The Octet Rule
Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons
until they have eight valence electrons.
This fills the valence

shell and tends to give
the atom the stability 8
of the inert gasses.
ONLY s- and p-orbitals are valence electrons.

Stability
• Electron Configuration Exceptions
– Copper
EXPECT: [Ar] 4s2 3d9
ACTUALLY: [Ar] 4s1 3d10
– Copper gains stability with a full

d-sublevel.

Stability
• Electron Configuration Exceptions
– Chromium
EXPECT: [Ar] 4s2 3d4
ACTUALLY: [Ar] 4s1 3d5
– Chromium gains stability with a half-full

d-sublevel.

Electron Filling in Periodic Table s
s
1 p
3 d
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
4
4s1 4s2 3d1 3d2 3d3 3d54 3d5 3d6 3d7 3d8 3d10
3d 9 3d10 4p1 4p2 4p3 4p4 4p5 4p6
4f Cr Cu
4s13d5 4s13d10
4d
n=4
4p
3d
Cr
Energy
4s
n=3 3p 4s13d5
3s
4s 3d
2p
n=2
2s
Cu
n=1 1s 4s13d10
4s 3d
Stability
• Ion Formation
– Atoms gain or lose electrons to become more
stable.
– Isoelectronic with the Noble Gases.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Stability
• Ion Electron Configuration
– Write the e- configuration for the closest
Noble Gas
• EX: Oxygen ion  O2-  Ne
O2- 10e- [He] 2s2 2p6

28
Orbital Diagrams for Nickel Ni

58.6934
2 2 6 2 6 2 8
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Excited State
1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p6 4s1 3d 9
Pauli Exclusion
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Hund’s Rule
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
28
Orbital Diagrams for Nickel Ni

58.6934
2 2 6 2 6 2 8
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Excited State
2 2 6 2 6 1 9
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
VIOLATES Pauli Exclusion
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
VIOLATES Hund’s Rule
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Write out the complete electron configuration for the following:
1) An atom of nitrogen
2) An atom of silver
3) An atom of uranium (shorthand)
POP
Fill in the orbital boxes for an atom of nickel (Ni)
1s 2s 2p
QUIZ
3s 3p 4s 3d
Which rule states no two electrons can spin the same direction in a single orbital?
Extra credit: Draw a Bohr model of a Ti4+ cation.

Ti4+ is isoelectronic to Argon.
Answer Key
Write out the complete electron configuration for the following:

1) An atom of nitrogen 1s22s22p3
2) An atom of silver 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d9
3) An atom of uranium (shorthand) [Rn]7s26d15f3
Fill in the orbital boxes for an atom of nickel (Ni)
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
Which rule states no two electrons can spin the same direction in a single orbital?
Pauli exclusion principle
Extra credit: Draw a Bohr model of a Ti4+ cation. n= 22+ n
Ti4+ is isoelectronic to Argon.

Electron Configurations and the
Periodic Table
Orbitals Being Filled
1 Groups 8
1 1s 2 3 4 5 6 7 1s
2 2s 2p
3 3s 3p
Periods
4 4s 3d 4p
5 5s 4d 5p
6 6s La 5d 6p
7 7s Ac 6d
4f Lanthanide series
5f Actinide series
s
1 p
3 d
6 *
7 W
W
s
s
H He
H p 1 2
1
1
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Na Mg d Al Si P S Cl Ar
3
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
4
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
6 *
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
7 W
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109
f
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
*
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
W
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
s
H He
H p 1s1 1s2
1
1s1
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2
2s1 2s2 2p1 2p2 2p3 2p4 2p5 2p6
Na Mg d Al Si P S Cl Ar
3
3s1 3s2 3p1 3p2 3p3 3p4 3p5 3p6
4
4s1 4s2 3d1 3d2 3d3 3d5 3d5 3d6 3d7 3d8 3d10 3d10 4p1 4p2 4p3 4p4 4p5 4p6
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5
5s1 5s2 4d1 4d2 4d4 4d5 4d6 4d7 4d8 4d10 4d10 4p1 5p1 5p2 5p3 5p4 5p5 5p6
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
6 *
6s1 6s2 5d2 5d3 5d4 5d5 5d6 5d7 5d9 5d10 5d10 6p1 6p2 6p3 6p4 6p5 6p6
7 W
7s1 7s2 6d2 6d3 6d4 6d5 6d6 6d7
f
*
5d1 4f2 4f3 4f4 4f5 4f6 4f7 4f7 4f9 4f10 4f11 4f12 4f13 4f14 4f114
W
6d1 6d2 5f2 5f3 5f4 5f6 5f7 5f7 5f8 5f10 5f11 5f14 5f13 5f14 5f14
s
1 p
3 d
4
4s1 4s2 3d1 3d2 3d3 3d54 3d5 3d6 3d7 3d8 3d10
3d 9 3d10 4p1 4p2 4p3 4p4 4p5 4p6
4f Cr Cu
4s13d5 4s13d10
4d
n=4
4p
3d
Cr
Energy
4s
n=3 3p 4s13d5
3s
4s 3d
2p
n=2
2s
Cu
n=1 1s 4s13d10
4s 3d
Hydrogen
1H
of First 18 Elements: Helium
2He
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

3Li 4Be 5B 6C 7N 8O 9F 10Ne
Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon Phosphorous Sulfur Chlorine Argon

11Na 12Mg 13Al 14Si 15P 16S 17Cl 18Ar
Electron Dot Diagrams
Group
1A
1 2A
2 3A
13 4A
14 5A
15 6A
16 7A
17 8A18
H He
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
s1 s2 s2p1 s2p2 s2p3 s2p4 s2p5 s2p6
= valence electron
V. Outer Level e-’s
• Valence electrons
• Usually involved in chemical
changes
• Dot diagram
–Symbol represents the nucleus
–Dots represent the outer e-’s
First Four Energy Levels
n=4
Energy n=3
n=2
n=1
Sublevels
Sublevel designation
4s
4p 4d 4f Principal
Four sublevels
level 4
3s 3p 3d Principal
Three sublevels
level 3
2s 2p Principal
Two sublevels
level 2
1s
Principal
One sublevel
level 1
Principal Level 2 Divided
2s sublevel 2p sublevel
2s
2px 2py 2pz

4f
Sublevels
4d
Principal
Four sublevels
level 4 n=4
Principal
Three sublevels
level 3 4p
Principal
Two sublevels
level 2
One sublevel
Principal 3d
level 1
4s
Energy n=3 3p
3s
2p
n=2
2s
n=1 1s
Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids
Metals and Nonmetals
H He
1
1 2
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2 Nonmetals
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
3
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
4
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
6
Rb Sr
37
Cs Ba
38
Y
39
*
METALS
Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
40
Hf
41
Ta
42
W
43
Re Os
44 45
Ir
46 47
Pt Au Hg
48
In
49
Tl
Sn Sb Te
50
Pb Bi
51 52
I
53
Po At Rn
Xe
54
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
7 W
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 Metalloids
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Metals, Nonmetals, & Metalloids
1
2 Nonmetals
3
5 Metals
6
Metalloids

Periodic Table
Isotopes of Magnesium
12e- 12e- 12e-

12p+ 12p+ 12p+
12n0 13n0 14n0
24 25 26
Atomic symbol 12 Mg 12 Mg 12 Mg
Number of protons 12 12 12
Number of electrons 12 12 12
Mass number 24 25 26
Number of neutrons 12 13 14
Isotope Notation Mg-24 Mg-25 Mg-26
Timberlake, Chemistry 7th Edition, page 64

Isotopes of Hydrogen
Protium Deuterium Tritium
1 p+ 1 p+
1 p+ 1 e- 1 e- 1 e-
1n 2n
1 2 3
1
H 1
H 1
H
(ordinary hydrogen) (heavy hydrogen) (radioactive hydrogen)
H-1 H-2 H-3
Ralph A. Burns, Fundamentals of Chemistry 1999, page 100

Isotopes of Hydrogen
• Protium (H-1)
1 proton, 0 neutrons, 1 electron 1 p+ 1 e-
most abundant isotope
• Deuterium (H-2)
1 proton, 1 neutron, 1 electron 1 p+
1n 1 e-
used in “heavy water”
• Tritium (H-3)
1 proton, 2 neutrons, 1 electron 1 p+
radioactive 2n 1 e-
Isotopes of Three Common Elements
Mass Fractional Average

Mass (amu) Abundance Atomic
Element Symbol
Number Mass
12
6 C 12 12 (exactly) 99.89%
Carbon 12.01
13
6 C 13 13.003 1.11%
35
17 Cl 35 34.969 75.53%
Chlorine 35.45
37
17 Cl 37 36.966 24.47%
28
14 Si 28 27.977 92.21%
29
Silicon 14 Si 29 28.976 4.70% 28.09
30
14
Si 30 29.974 3.09%
LeMay Jr, Beall, Robblee, Brower, Chemistry Connections to Our Changing World , 1996, page 110
Radioisotopes
• Radioactive isotopes
• Many uses
– Medical diagnostics
– Optimal composition of
fertilizers
– Abrasion studies in engines and
tires
Radioisotope is injected
into the bloodstream to
observe circulation.
Half-Life of Isotopes
Half-Lives and Radiation of Some Naturally Occurring Radioisotopes

Isotope Half-Life Radiation emitted
Carbon-14 5.73 x 103 years b

Potassium-40 1.25 x 109 years b, g
Radon-222 3.8 days a
Radium-226 1.6 x 103 years a, g
Thorium-230 7.54 x 104 years a, g
Thorium-234 24.1 days b, g
Uranium-235 7.0 x 108 years a, g
Uranium-238 4.46 x 109 years a
Atomic Structure
• ATOMS
– Differ by number of protons
• IONS
– Differ by number of electrons
• ISOTOPES
– Differ by number of neutrons
Formation of Cation
sodium atom
Na
sodium ion
Na+
e- e-
e- e- e-
e- e-
e-
e- e-
e- 11p+ loss of 11p+
e- one valence e- e-
e- electron
e-
e-
e-
e- e- e-
Formation of Anion
chlorine atom chloride ion
Cl e-
Cl1-
e- gain of
e-
e- one valence e-
electron e-
e-
e- e-
e-
e- e- e-
e- e-
e- e-
e- 17p+ 17p+
e- e-
e-
e-
e- e- e-
e- e- e-
e-
e- e- e-
e-
e- e- e-
Formation of Ionic Bond
chloride ion
sodium ion Cl1-
Na+ e-
e-
e- e-
e- e- e- e-
e-
e-
e- e- e- e-
11p+ 17p+
e- e- e- e-
e-
e- e- e-
e- e-
e- e-
e-
e-
Ionic Bonding
NaCl
n=3
-
n=2 n=3
-
- - - - -
-
-
-
- - - - -
-
+ -
- - -
- - -
-
- - - - - -
- -
Na Cl Na+ Cl-
[Ne]3s1 [Ne]3s23p5 [Ne] [Ne]3s23p6
Transfer of electrons to achieve a stable octet (8 electrons in valence shell).

Covalent Bonding
n=2
- -
- -
- -
n=1 - -
- - -
-
-
+ - -
-
-
-
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
O O O2
[He]2s22p4 [He]2s22p4
Sharing of electrons to achieve a stable octet (8 electrons in valence shell).

Diatomic Elements, 1 and 7
H2
N2 O2 F2
Cl2
Br2
F2
Newton’s First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)
Object at rest tends to

stay at rest, and object
in motion tends to stay
in motion at constant
velocity unless object
is acted upon by an
unbalanced, external
force.
inertia  mass
Resources - Atomic Structure
Objectives General Chemistry PP
Worksheet - vocabulary
Worksheet - development of atomic theory
Worksheet - atomic number and mass number
Worksheet - ions and subatomic particles
Lab - isotopes
Worksheet - orbital diagrams
Worksheet - electron configuration Episode 6 - Atom
Worksheet - light problems Review Sheet
Worksheet - half-life
Textbook - questions
Outline (general)

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Atomic Structure

• Not the history of atom, but

“Nothing exists but atoms and space, all else is opinion”.

Relation of the four elements and the four qualities

Blend these “elements” in different proportions to get all substances

Anaxagoras (Greek, born 500 B.C.)

Empedocles (Greek, born in Sicily, 490 B.C.)

Democritus (Thracian, born 470 B.C.)

Aristotle (Greek, born 384 B.C.)

– Air therefore could not

Law of Definite Proportions

Law of Multiple Proportions

4 atoms hydrogen 4 atoms hydrogen

Before reaction glass After reaction

• Each compound has a specific ratio of

• Dalton could not use his theory to determine the

• Dalton’s data led to a general statement known as the

• Law states that when two elements form a series of

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.

• He also called the

2. Atoms of one element can neither be subdivided nor changed into

3. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.

5. Atoms of one element differ in mass and other properties from

6. In compounds, atoms of different elements combine in simple, whole

Carbon dioxide, CO2

• One of the pieces of evidence for the

• She discovered radioactivity, the

High source of shadow

vacuum tube magnet

High source of shadow

Cathode high voltage

•Cathode ray = electron

Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 56

Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) PAPER

Animation by Raymond Chang – All rights reserved.

• In 1909 Rutherford undertook a series of experiments

beam of alpha particles

circular ZnS - coated

beam of alpha particles

Ionizing Free e- are attracted to

Wilbraham, Staley, Matta, Waterman, Chemistry, 2002, page 857

Case A Particle bounces off

Case C Particle attracts

alpha rays don’t diffract ... alpha radiation is a stream of particles

Copyright © 1997-2005 by Fred Senese

Alpha particles Nucleus

Plum-pudding atom Nuclear atom

Zumdahl, Zumdahl, DeCoste, World of Chemistry 2002, page 57

Nucleus has (+) charge

Electrons float around nucleus

Alpha particle moth

Large angle of deflection, must have hit massive object!

....... ... . . ...... ... .

.. ....... ..... ..... .. .....

Small hole Telescope

BalancingMass was and

Rutherford later (1911) found these particles to be identical to

Chadwick (1932) discovered particles with similar mass to proton